A new study published in Evolutionary Psychological Science identifies five distinct strategies that women employ to detect or prevent deception from potential romantic partners. The findings indicate that introducing partners to family members and taking relationships slowly are the most common methods women use to verify a man’s honesty. These behaviors appear to function as evolutionary counter-measures against the risks of sexual exploitation in mating contexts.

Humans face a fundamental adaptive challenge in the realm of mating known as exploitation. One individual might attempt to enhance their own reproductive success at the expense of another’s fitness. This dynamic often involves deception, where a person misrepresents their intentions or background to gain sexual access.

Evolutionary theory suggests that women have historically faced higher costs from such deception than men have. This disparity stems from biological realities regarding parental investment. Women are obligated to invest substantial metabolic resources into offspring through gestation and lactation.

Men, conversely, can theoretically achieve reproduction with a minimal investment of time and resources. This asymmetry means that a man could walk away after a sexual encounter with few immediate consequences. A woman in the same situation would be left with the burdens of pregnancy and child-rearing without partner support.

This discrepancy likely created strong selection pressures for women to develop specific defenses. Researchers view this interaction as a form of evolutionary arms race. As men developed deceptive tactics to secure short-term mating opportunities, women likely co-evolved detection strategies to protect themselves.

“The core concept draws from the evolutionary arms race between measures of exploitation and counter-exploitation, as previously examined in studies of rape avoidance mechanisms that mitigate the high costs of rape as an exploitative strategy. A milder form of intersexual conflict manifests in sexual deception, yet a key research gap persisted regarding women’s specific counter-strategies to this form of exploitation,” said study author Peyman Sayyad of the Shams Higher Education Institute.

The researchers sought to catalog women’s specific anti-deception tactics. They aimed to understand how these behaviors are structured and what personality traits influence their use. The researchers conducted two separate investigations to explore this topic.

The first study utilized a qualitative approach to generate a broad list of potential behaviors. The research team recruited 147 female undergraduate students from a large public university in the Southeastern United States. The average age of these participants was approximately 19 years old.

Participants answered open-ended questions about what actions they or other women take to avoid being deceived in dating contexts. They were asked to describe specific things they might do, such as asking friends for verification. They also listed things they might avoid doing, such as rushing into intimacy.

The researchers and a graduate student independently analyzed these written responses. They worked to eliminate vague or redundant answers to create a consolidated list. This process resulted in the identification of 43 distinct anti-deception acts that women might perform.

The second study involved a new group of 249 female participants recruited from the same university setting. The sample was predominantly White, though it included participants from various ethnic backgrounds. Approximately 44 percent of the sample reported being in a relationship at the time of the study.

These participants reviewed the list of 43 behaviors identified in the first phase. They rated how likely they would be to perform each action on a scale ranging from “to no extent” to “to a very high extent.” This allowed the researchers to quantify which strategies are most prevalent.

The researchers also administered standard psychological questionnaires to assess individual personality differences. Participants completed the Mate Value Scale to rate their own self-perceived desirability as a partner.

They also completed the revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory. This inventory measures an individual’s willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual activity. It assesses past sexual behavior, attitudes toward casual sex, and sexual desire. Higher scores on this measure indicate a more unrestricted sociosexuality, meaning a preference for short-term mating.

The researchers also measured attachment styles using the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale. This specifically looked at avoidant attachment, which involves discomfort with intimacy. Finally, the researchers assessed neuroticism using a short form of the Big Five Inventory.

Statistical analysis of the survey responses revealed that the anti-deception tactics clustered into five main categories. The researchers labeled the first and most frequently considered category as “Integration.” This domain involves introducing a potential partner to family members or meeting his family.

Integration serves as a robust vetting mechanism. Involving family allows a woman to verify a partner’s background and intentions through the scrutiny of kin. This finding aligns with historical patterns where families played a central role in mate selection.

The second most common domain was labeled “Reticence.” This strategy focuses on slowing down the pace of the relationship to prevent premature emotional attachment. Tactics in this category include avoiding rushing into commitment or delaying sexual intimacy until trust is firmly established.

By maintaining distance, a woman can observe a partner’s behavior over time. This reduces the risk of overlooking red flags due to the blinding effects of infatuation. It provides a longer window for deceptive signals to become apparent.

The third domain identified was “Social Media.” This involves researching a partner’s online presence or checking the profiles of his friends. Women might look for inconsistencies between what a man says and what his digital footprint reveals.

The fourth category was “Religion Matching.” This entails seeking partners with shared religious beliefs or ensuring a partner is a practicing believer. This strategy relies on the heuristic that religious individuals may adhere to stricter moral codes regarding honesty and fidelity.

The least common strategy was labeled “Distrust.” This category includes more active and confrontational tactics. For example, a woman might ask questions to which she already knows the answer to test a partner’s honesty.

“Women might employ diverse strategies to counter sexual deception in mating and dating contexts,” Sayyad told PsyPost. “These include familial oversight, religion, and modern cultural mechanisms like social media.”

The researchers also found associations between these strategies and individual personality traits. Women who were more open to short-term mating were less likely to use Integration or Religion Matching tactics. This suggests that women focused on casual relationships may prioritize these long-term vetting mechanisms less.

For women pursuing short-term mating, the goal is often immediate sexual access rather than long-term resource provisioning. As a result, the deep vetting provided by family integration or religious alignment may be viewed as unnecessary obstacles.

Additionally, the researchers found a link between attachment style and behavior. Women with higher levels of avoidant attachment were more likely to use Reticence tactics. These individuals often feel uncomfortable with intimacy and may use distance as a protective mechanism.

This tendency to hold back serves a dual purpose for avoidantly attached women. It protects them from the emotional risks of intimacy while simultaneously guarding against deception. By not committing quickly, they minimize their vulnerability to exploitation.

Contrary to the researchers’ expectations, a woman’s self-perceived mate value did not predict which tactics she used. High mate value is often associated with being a target for deception. The authors hypothesized that these women would be more vigilant, but the data did not support this link.

Similarly, neuroticism did not show a significant connection to any specific anti-deception domain. Neuroticism is characterized by higher sensitivity to threat and negative emotion. The researchers expected this trait to correlate with increased vigilance, but the results were null.

There are some limitations to consider. The sample consisted entirely of undergraduate women. This demographic is relatively young and may have limited mating experience compared to older adult populations.

The specific context of the study also matters. The research focused on a modern Western environment where women have free choice in mating. This differs from ancestral environments or cultures where family members play a dominant role in arranging marriages.

The study also relied on self-reported intentions rather than observed behaviors. Participants indicated what they would do, which may not perfectly align with their actions in a real-world scenario. Future research is needed to determine the actual effectiveness of these tactics in detecting lies.

“This study investigates women’s counter-strategies to sexual deception within a free-choice mating context that minimizes parental involvement, diverging from ancestral conditions prevalent across much of human history,” Sayyad noted. “Moreover, such defenses may rely on domain-general adaptations to exploitation rather than deception-specific mechanisms, warranting more tests in future research. These caveats highlight opportunities for extensions.”

It is also possible that men have evolved counter-counter-strategies. If women use these specific tactics to detect deception, men may have developed ways to bypass these checks. This ongoing co-evolutionary dynamic suggests that the repertoire of deception and detection is likely complex.

The findings provide a structured framework for understanding how women navigate the risks of modern dating. They highlight that skepticism is not a singular trait but manifests through diverse behavioral strategies. These strategies appear to be deployed selectively based on a woman’s mating goals and attachment style.

“Assessing the role of parents in offspring intersexual conflicts offers a promising avenue for future research,” Sayyad added.

The study, “Women’s Anti-Deception Tactics in Mating: A Preliminary Investigation,” was authored by Peyman Sayyad, Mazyar Bagherian, Farid Pazhoohi, and Mitch Brown.

A new study published in Social Psychological and Personality Science challenges the conventional wisdom regarding the relationship between self-discipline and happiness. The findings suggest that psychological well-being acts as a precursor to self-control rather than a result of it. This research indicates that individuals who prioritize their emotional health may be better equipped to pursue long-term goals than those who rely solely on willpower.

Psychology has traditionally viewed self-control as a prized human capacity that is essential for a successful life. The general assumption holds that the ability to resist short-term temptations in favor of long-term goals leads to better health, career success, and financial security. By extension, scholars and the public alike often assume that exercising high self-control leads to increased happiness and life satisfaction.

Despite the popularity of this belief, the scientific evidence supporting a direct causal link from self-control to well-being has been inconclusive. Many previous studies relied on correlational data, which can show that two things are related but cannot determine which one causes the other. Other studies that attempted to track these variables over time faced methodological issues that made it difficult to draw firm conclusions about directionality.

“Our work was driven by a significant gap in the existing research. For years, psychologists have operated under the strong assumption that self-control is a key driver of well-being,” said study author Lile Jia, an associate professor at the National University of Singapore and director of the Situated Goal Pursuit (SPUR) Lab.

“The narrative is that if you are more disciplined, you will be happier and more satisfied with life. However, when we examined the scientific literature, the causal evidence for this claim was surprisingly weak and fraught with issues. Most studies were correlational, and the few longitudinal studies attempting to establish causality had methodological limitations that made their conclusions ambiguous.”

“At the same time, there are strong theoretical reasons to suspect the causal arrow might point in the opposite direction,” Jia explained. “For example, Barbara Fredrickson’s ‘broaden-and-build’ theory suggests that positive emotions—a core component of well-being—broaden our mindset and help us build personal resources. We reasoned that these resources could, in turn, facilitate better self-control.”

“So, the central motivation was to rigorously test these competing causal pathways. We wanted to clarify the directionality of this important relationship between self-control and well-being using more robust statistical methods (the RI-CLPM) and a three-wave longitudinal design, which is better suited for making causal inferences than the two-wave designs used in prior work.”

The researchers conducted two separate longitudinal studies. Study 1 involved 377 working adults recruited from an Asian country. The participants were part of a larger project regarding career development and lifelong learning.

The researchers collected data from these participants at three distinct time points, with each wave separated by a six-month interval. This design allowed the team to track changes within the same individuals over a period of one year. To measure self-control, the participants completed a 20-item scale that assessed their ability to inhibit impulses, initiate work, and continue good behaviors.

For the assessment of well-being, the participants responded to a scale designed to be culturally appropriate for the population. This measure included items asking about their levels of happiness, self-worth, and appreciation for life. The team also utilized a statistical technique known as the random intercept cross-lagged panel model.

This specific analytical approach is significant because it separates stable personality traits from temporary fluctuations within a person. It allowed the researchers to determine if a specific increase in well-being at one time point predicted a subsequent increase in self-control at the next time point. By isolating these within-person changes, the model provides a stronger test for potential causal influence than traditional methods.

The results from the first study revealed a pattern that contradicted the traditional narrative. Earlier levels of self-control did not reliably predict improvements in well-being six months later. Simply exercising discipline did not appear to make participants happier in the future.

In contrast, the data supported the reverse hypothesis. Participants who reported higher levels of well-being at one time point exhibited greater self-control at the next measurement wave. Feeling well appeared to function as a precursor to functioning well.

To ensure these findings were not specific to one culture or time interval, the researchers conducted a second study. Study 2 recruited a larger sample of 1,299 working adults in the United States. This study followed a similar three-wave design but utilized a shorter time frame to capture more immediate effects.

Participants in the American sample completed surveys once a month for three consecutive months. They answered the same self-control questions used in the first study. To measure well-being, they completed a scale assessing positive feelings, optimism, and vitality.

The analysis of the American data yielded results that mirrored those of the Asian sample. High levels of self-control at the start of a month did not lead to increased well-being the following month. The anticipated reward of happiness following disciplined behavior did not materialize in the short term.

However, the reverse relationship remained significant and positive. Individuals who felt more optimistic and energetic at the beginning of the month demonstrated better self-control a month later. This replication across two different cultures and timeframes provides robust evidence that the primary direction of influence flows from well-being to self-control.

“The most surprising result was the consistent lack of evidence for the popular belief that self-control predicts later well-being,” Jia told PsyPost. “Given how deeply this idea is embedded in both scientific thinking and popular culture, we expected to see at least a small effect in that direction. To find that the data from two separate studies so clearly supported only the path from well-being to self-control was quite striking. It really challenges a foundational assumption and underscores the need to re-evaluate how we think about these two critical aspects of a good life.”

The researchers conducted supplementary analyses to further check these patterns. In the first study, participants also provided daily reports of their mood and behavior for a week. These daily records showed that while positive emotions predicted self-control months later, self-control did not uniquely predict daily positive emotions when general well-being was taken into account.

The researchers propose that positive emotions may help replenish the mental energy required to resist temptations and stick to difficult tasks. When people feel good, they may be more open to challenges and better at managing conflicting goals. This aligns with the idea that well-being acts as fuel for the engine of self-control.

“The most important takeaway for the average person is to reconsider how they approach self-improvement,” Jia said. “The common advice is often to ‘just try harder’ or to focus on building discipline through sheer willpower. Our findings suggest a potentially more effective, and certainly more pleasant, alternative: prioritize your well-being to build your self-control.”

“Instead of viewing happiness as a reward you get after achieving your goals through discipline, think of well-being as the fuel that powers the engine of self-control. If you want to get better at resisting temptations, starting new projects, or sticking with good habits, a great first step is to invest in activities that make you feel happy, energetic, optimistic, and appreciative of life. Our research indicates that feeling well precedes functioning well.”

The study’s strength lies in its use of a three-wave longitudinal design across two diverse cultural samples. But as with all research, there are some limitations. The statistical framework used relies on the assumption that the relationships between variables remain constant over time. It is also possible that unmeasured third variables, such as changes in sleep, stress, or social support, could influence both well-being and self-control simultaneously.

It is also important to note that the absence of a short-term effect does not mean self-control has no relationship with happiness. “A crucial caveat is that ‘absence of evidence is not evidence of absence,'” Jia explained. “Our study failed to find a within-person causal effect of self-control on well-being, but this does not mean that self-control is unimportant for happiness altogether.

“It’s possible that having high self-control as a stable, long-term trait contributes to a person’s overall life satisfaction (a between-persons effect), even if short-term fluctuations in self-control don’t cause short-term fluctuations in well-being.”

“So, the misinterpretation to avoid is thinking ‘self-control doesn’t matter for happiness.’ A more accurate interpretation is that if you are looking for a positive change, our evidence suggests that boosting your well-being is a more direct and effective way to improve your self-control, rather than the other way around.”

Future research could explore the specific mechanisms that allow well-being to improve self-control. It may be that positive moods accelerate habit formation or enhance cognitive flexibility. Understanding these processes could lead to better interventions for people struggling with self-regulation.

“The path to greater self-control doesn’t have to be a grim, effortful struggle,” Jia added. “Instead, it can be paved with positive experiences. By actively cultivating joy, engagement, and meaning in our lives, we are not just making ourselves feel better in the moment; we are also building the psychological resources we need to be more effective and successful in the future. It places the pursuit of well-being at the very center of personal growth.”

The study, “Feeling Well, Functioning Well: How Psychological Well-Being Predicts Later Self-Control, but Not the Other Way Around,” was authored by Shuna Shiann Khoo, Lile Jia, Ismaharif Ismail, Ying Li, Liangyu Xing, and Jolynn Pek.

A comprehensive analysis of English-language literature published over the last century reveals distinct patterns in how race and gender intersect within written text. The findings suggest that Black women and Asian men have historically appeared less frequently in books compared to Black men and Asian women, a phenomenon that aligns with psychological theories regarding social invisibility.

The research also provides evidence that these representational trends are not static and appear to shift in response to major historical events. These findings were published in the journal Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology.

Joanna Schug, an associate professor at William & Mary, led the research team. She collaborated with Monika Gosin from the University of California San Diego and Nicholas P. Alt from Occidental College to investigate these long-term cultural trends. The study aimed to apply a historical lens to psychological theories that have typically been tested in laboratory settings.

Scholars have previously developed the concept of gendered race theory to explain how society perceives different groups. This framework suggests that the racial category “Black” is often cognitively associated with masculinity. Conversely, the racial category “Asian” is frequently associated with femininity.

These mental associations can lead to a phenomenon known as intersectional invisibility. This theory posits that individuals who do not fit the prototypical stereotypes—specifically Black women and Asian men—are often overlooked or marginalized. Because they do not align with the dominant gendered stereotypes of their racial groups, they may become less visible in cultural representations.

Prior experiments have supported these theories by showing that people are more likely to forget statements made by Black women or Asian men compared to other groups. Schug and her colleagues sought to determine if this psychological bias extended to cultural artifacts. They investigated whether these patterns of invisibility could be quantified in millions of books published over a 120-year period.

To conduct this analysis, the researchers utilized the Google Books Ngram dataset. This massive digital archive contains word frequency data from over 15 million books published between 1900 and 2019. The team examined two specific collections within this dataset: a general corpus of English-language books and a specific corpus containing only fiction texts.

The investigators tracked the frequency of specific phrases, known as “ngrams,” that combine racial and gender identifiers. They searched for terms such as “Black woman,” “Black man,” “Asian woman,” and “Asian man.” To ensure the search was comprehensive, they included various synonyms and historical terms relevant to different time periods.

For the category of Black individuals, the search included terms like “African American” and older designations that were common in the early 20th century. For Asian individuals, the researchers included specific ethnic groups such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. They calculated the raw frequency of these terms to compare their prevalence in fiction versus nonfiction works.

The results from the first part of the study provided evidence supporting the existence of representational invisibility in literature. Throughout the majority of the 20th century, terms referring to Black men appeared more often than terms referring to Black women. This gap was present in both fiction and nonfiction texts.

Similarly, the analysis showed a consistent disparity in representations of Asian identities. References to Asian women generally outnumbered references to Asian men. This pattern persisted across the studied time period, although the gap was particularly pronounced in nonfiction books starting in the 1990s.

The researchers argue that these patterns reflect deep-seated historical stereotypes. For example, historical labor laws and immigration policies often restricted Asian men to domestic roles, which may have contributed to feminized stereotypes. In contrast, historical narratives surrounding Black identity have often focused on men, particularly in the context of labor and political struggle.

The study also included a comparison with White gender categories. The data showed that references to White men far exceeded references to White women. This finding aligns with the concept of androcentrism, where men are treated as the default representation of a group.

While the general patterns supported the theory of intersectional invisibility, the researchers observed a notable shift beginning in the late 20th century. In nonfiction books, references to Black women began to increase substantially around 1980. Eventually, the frequency of terms for Black women surpassed those for Black men in nonfiction texts.

To understand the drivers behind these shifts, the authors conducted a second study. They hypothesized that specific social movements might be influencing how often these groups were mentioned in print. They focused on the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Feminist movement.

The team identified key terms associated with these movements. For the Civil Rights Movement, they tracked phrases like “Civil Rights Movement” and “Black Power.” For the Black Feminist movement, they tracked terms such as “Black feminist” and “womanist.”

They then used statistical models to analyze the relationship between these movement-related terms and the frequency of race-gender categories over time. The analysis examined whether a rise in social movement terminology corresponded with a rise in the visibility of specific groups.

The findings indicated a strong link between the Civil Rights Movement and the representation of Black men. Increases in terms related to Civil Rights were positively associated with increases in references to Black men in both fiction and nonfiction. This suggests that the discourse of this era primarily elevated the visibility of Black men.

In contrast, the Civil Rights terminology did not show a significant positive association with references to Black women. This aligns with critiques from scholars like Kimberlé Crenshaw. Crenshaw has argued that antiracist efforts during that era often focused on the experiences of Black men, while feminist efforts often focused on White women.

However, the data revealed a different pattern regarding the Black Feminist movement. The rise in terms associated with Black Feminism was a significant predictor of increased references to Black women. This effect was particularly strong in nonfiction texts.

This suggests that the Black Feminist movement played a role in correcting the historical invisibility of Black women in literature. As scholars and activists began to produce more work centered on the experiences of Black women, the language in published books shifted to reflect this focus.

The study did observe some differences between fiction and nonfiction. For instance, while Black Feminism terms predicted more mentions of Black women in nonfiction, they were negatively associated with mentions of Black men in fiction. This indicates that different genres may respond to cultural shifts in distinct ways.

The researchers note that the patterns for Asian men and women remained relatively stable compared to the shifts seen for Black men and women. The representation of Asian men remained lower than that of Asian women throughout most of the period. The authors suggest that future research could investigate if specific Asian American social movements have had similar effects on representation.

But there are some limitations to to consider. The Google Books dataset, while vast, is not a perfect representation of all culture. It tends to overrepresent academic and scientific publications, which might skew the results toward scholarly discourse rather than everyday language.

Additionally, the study is correlational. This means that while the rise in social movement terms coincides with changes in representation, it does not definitively prove that the movements caused the changes. Other unmeasured societal factors could have contributed to these trends.

The researchers also point out the complexity of the term “Asian” in their analysis. The study primarily utilized terms related to East Asian identities. This focus means the findings may not fully capture the experiences of South Asian or Southeast Asian groups.

Despite these limitations, the study offers new insights into how cultural stereotypes are preserved and challenged over time. It provides empirical evidence that the “invisibility” of certain groups is not just a theoretical concept but a measurable phenomenon in the written record.

The findings also highlight the potential of social movements to alter widespread cultural narratives. The increase in references to Black women following the rise of Black Feminism suggests that concerted intellectual and political efforts can successfully challenge representational biases.

Future research could build on this work by using more advanced text analysis methods. Newer techniques could examine the context in which these words appear, rather than just their frequency. This would allow for a deeper understanding of the quality of representation, beyond just the quantity.

The study, “A historical psychology approach to gendered racial stereotypes: An examination of a multi-million book sample of 20th century texts,” was authored by Joanna Schug, Monika Gosin, and Nicholas P. Alt.

Recent trends in popular culture suggest that sexual behaviors involving physical force, such as choking or spanking, have moved from the fringes into the mainstream. A new study involving a nationally representative sample of adults provides evidence that these practices are widespread in the United States, particularly among younger generations. Published in the Archives of Sexual Behavior, the findings indicate that while many adults engage in these acts consensually, a significant portion of the population has also experienced them without permission.

The prevalence of “rough sex” has appeared to increase over the last decade. Depictions of these behaviors have become common in television, music, and social media. This visibility may lead to the perception that such practices are a standard or expected part of sexual intimacy. While these acts can enhance pleasure and intimacy for many, public health professionals have raised questions about safety and consent.

Previous attempts to measure these behaviors have often faced methodological hurdles. Many earlier surveys relied on data that is now outdated or focused exclusively on college students, limiting the ability to apply findings to the general public. Other studies used non-probability samples, such as online opt-in panels, which may not accurately reflect the broader population. Additionally, standard public health surveys often focus on disease prevention and pregnancy, omitting specific questions about acts like choking or slapping.

Debby Herbenick, a professor at the Indiana University School of Public Health, led the new research. Herbenick and her colleagues sought to fill the gaps in existing literature by collecting current data from a diverse range of ages and backgrounds. Their objective was to provide precise estimates of how many Americans engage in these behaviors and to identify demographic factors associated with them.

To achieve this, the researchers analyzed data from the 2022 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior. This survey is a recurring project that gathers detailed information on the sexual lives of Americans. The team used the Ipsos KnowledgePanel to recruit participants. This panel utilizes address-based sampling methods to create a pool of respondents that is statistically representative of the United States non-institutionalized adult population.

The final sample consisted of 9,029 adults between the ages of 18 and 94. The survey presented participants with a list of ten specific sexual behaviors. These included hair pulling, biting, face slapping, genital slapping, light spanking, hard spanking, choking, punching, name-calling, and smothering. The researchers avoided using the potentially ambiguous term “rough sex” in the questions. Instead, they asked about each specific act individually.

Participants reported their experiences in three distinct contexts. They indicated if they had performed these acts on a partner. They also indicated if a partner had done these acts to them with permission or consent. Finally, they reported if a partner had done these acts to them without permission or consent.

The results indicated that engagement in these behaviors is common. Approximately 48 percent of women and 61 percent of men reported having ever performed at least one of the listed behaviors on a partner. When it came to receiving these acts with consent, about 54 percent of women and 46 percent of men reported having at least one such experience.

Age emerged as a strong predictor of engagement. The researchers observed a substantial divide between adults under the age of 40 and those in older cohorts. Younger adults were significantly more likely to report both performing and receiving these behaviors. For instance, while choking a partner was rarely reported by men over the age of 50, it was a common experience for men in their 20s and 30s.

The types of behaviors reported varied in intensity. Biting and light spanking were among the most common activities reported by all groups. More intense behaviors, such as punching or smothering, were reported less frequently.

Gender patterns in the data generally aligned with traditional roles. Men were more likely to report being the ones to perform the acts, such as spanking or choking a partner. Conversely, women were more likely to report being on the receiving end of these behaviors. This suggests that even within practices considered “kinky” or alternative, mainstream participation often mirrors conventional active-male and passive-female scripts.

Transgender and gender nonbinary participants reported high rates of engagement across all categories. About 71 percent of these individuals reported ever performing at least one of the acts on a partner. Similarly, roughly 72 percent reported receiving at least one of the acts with consent.

One of the most concerning findings related to non-consensual experiences. The survey revealed that a substantial number of adults have been subjected to rough sex behaviors without their agreement. Approximately 20 percent of women reported that a partner had performed at least one of the ten behaviors on them without permission.

The rates of non-consensual experiences were also notable for men, with about 16 percent reporting such incidents. The risk was highest for transgender and gender nonbinary individuals. Approximately 35 percent of this group reported experiencing at least one of the behaviors without consent.

These findings align with and expand upon several lines of previous inquiry regarding rough sex. For example, a 2024 study by Döring and colleagues surveyed a national sample of German adults using an online panel. They found a lifetime prevalence of rough sex involvement at 29 percent. Similar to the current U.S. study, the German researchers identified a steep age gradient. Younger participants were much more likely to engage in these acts than older cohorts.

The German study also mirrored the gendered nature of these interactions observed in the U.S. data. Döring’s team found that men were significantly more likely to take an active role, while women were more likely to take a passive role. This consistency across Western nations suggests that the rise of rough sex is occurring within the boundaries of traditional gender expectations rather than subverting them.

Earlier research involving U.S. college students also provides context for the current findings. A 2021 study by Herbenick and colleagues found that nearly 80 percent of sexually active undergraduates had engaged in rough sex.

The most common behaviors identified in that probability sample—choking, hair pulling, and spanking—match the most prevalent behaviors in the new national adult study. The extremely high rates among college students align with the age-related trends seen in the adult data. It appears that emerging adults are the primary demographic driving these statistics.

Research from an evolutionary psychology perspective offers potential explanations for why these behaviors are occurring. Studies by Burch and Salmon have suggested that consensual rough sex is often driven by a desire for novelty rather than aggression. Their work with undergraduates indicated that people who consume pornography are more likely to seek out these novel experiences. They also found that men were more likely to initiate rough sex in response to feelings of jealousy.

Burch and Salmon’s findings framed these behaviors as largely recreational and resulting in little physical injury. The current study complicates that narrative. While many respondents reported consensual engagement, the high rates of non-consensual experiences indicate that these behaviors are not always harmless play. The prevalence of non-consensual choking and slapping suggests a darker side to the normalization of rough sex that novelty-seeking theories may not fully address.

The researchers pointed out several limitations to their study. The list of ten behaviors may not capture the full spectrum of what individuals consider to be rough sex. Additionally, the survey did not measure the “wantedness” of the acts. It is possible for an act to be consensual but not necessarily desired or enjoyed, and the study did not make this distinction.

The study also grouped bisexual and pansexual individuals together for analysis. This decision was made due to sample sizes but may obscure unique experiences within these distinct identities. Furthermore, the reliance on self-reported data means that memory recall could influence the accuracy of the lifetime prevalence estimates.

Future research aims to explore the nuances of consent in these scenarios. The researchers suggest investigating how partners communicate boundaries regarding specific acts like choking or slapping. Understanding the context in which non-consensual acts occur—whether as part of an otherwise consensual encounter or as distinct assaults—is a priority for public health.

The study, “Prevalence and Demographic Correlates of “Rough Sex” Behaviors: Findings from a U.S. Nationally Representative Survey of Adults Ages 18–94 Years,” was authored by Debby Herbenick, Tsung‑chieh Fu, Xiwei Chen, Sumayyah Ali, Ivanka Simić Stanojević, Devon J. Hensel, Paul J. Wright, Zoë D. Peterson, Jaroslaw Harezlak, and J. Dennis Fortenberry.

New research published in the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin reveals a psychological split within the political left regarding perceptions of in-group dissenters. The study indicates that self-identified Progressives and Traditional Liberals generate fundamentally different mental images of author J.K. Rowling based on her views regarding gender identity. While Progressives conceptualize Rowling as appearing cold and right-wing, Traditional Liberals visualize her in a warm and positive light.

Political psychology has historically focused on the ideological conflict between the Left and the Right. Scholars have frequently characterized right-wing individuals as more prone to rigidity and hostility toward out-groups. However, recent academic inquiries have shifted focus to the increasing fragmentation within the left-wing itself. This internal division is often categorized into two distinct subgroups: Progressives and Traditional Liberals.

Elena A. Magazin, Geoffrey Haddock, and Travis Proulx from Cardiff University conducted this research to investigate how these two groups perceive ideological dissenters from within their own ranks. The researchers utilized the Progressive Values Scale (PVS) to distinguish between the groups.

This scale identifies Progressives as those who emphasize mandated diversity, concern over cultural appropriation, and the public censure of offensive views. In contrast, Traditional Liberals tend to favor free expression and gradual institutional change over activist approaches.

The primary objective was to determine if the tendency to derogate—or negatively perceive—others extends to members of one’s own political group who hold controversial views. J.K. Rowling served as the focal point for this investigation.

Rowling is a prominent figure who has historically supported left-wing causes but has recently expressed “gender critical” views that conflict with the “gender self-identification” stance held by many on the Left. The researchers sought to visualize how these political orientations shape the mental representations of such a figure.

The researchers employed a technique known as reverse correlation to capture these internal mental images. This method allows scientists to visualize a participant’s internal representation of a person or group without asking them to draw or describe features explicitly. In the first study, the team recruited 82 left-wing university students in the United Kingdom to act as “generators.”

During the image generation phase, participants viewed pairs of faces derived from a neutral base image overlaid with random visual noise. For each pair, they selected the face that best resembled their mental image of J.K. Rowling. By averaging the selected images across hundreds of trials, the researchers created composite “classification images” representing the average visualization of Rowling for Progressives and Traditional Liberals respectively.

A separate group of 178 undergraduates then served as “raters.” These participants evaluated the resulting composite images on various character traits, such as warmth, competence, morality, and femininity. The raters were unaware of how the images were generated or which political group created them.

The results from Study 1 provided evidence of a stark contrast in perception. The image of Rowling generated by Progressives was rated as cold, incompetent, immoral, and relatively masculine. Raters also perceived this face as appearing “right-wing” and prejudiced.

On the other hand, the image generated by Traditional Liberals was evaluated positively across these dimensions. It appeared warm, competent, feminine, and distinctly left-wing. This suggests that while Progressives mentally penalized the dissenter, Traditional Liberals maintained a flattering perception of her.

To ensure these findings were not limited to a specific demographic or location, the researchers conducted a second study with a more diverse sample. Study 2 involved 382 adults from the United States. This experiment aimed to replicate the findings and expand upon them by including abstract targets alongside concrete ones.

Participants were asked to generate images for four different categories. These included specific public figures, such as J.K. Rowling (representing gender critical views) and Lady Gaga (representing gender self-identification views). They also generated images for generalized, abstract descriptions of a “fellow left-winger” who held either gender critical or self-identification beliefs.

Following the generation phase, 301 distinct participants rated the eight resulting composite images. The findings from the second study reinforced the patterns observed in the first. In general, faces representing gender critical views were rated more negatively than those representing self-identification views. This aligns with the general left-wing preference for the self-identification model.

However, the degree of negativity varied by generator type. Progressives consistently generated gender critical faces that were evaluated more harshly than those generated by Traditional Liberals. This held true for both the abstract descriptions and the specific example of J.K. Rowling.

A specific divergence occurred regarding the concrete representation of Rowling. Consistent with the UK study, US Progressives generated a negative image of the author. In contrast, US Traditional Liberals generated an image that raters viewed as warm, competent, and moral. This occurred even though Traditional Liberals generated a negative image for the abstract concept of a gender critical person.

This discrepancy suggests a nuanced psychological process for Traditional Liberals. While they may disagree with the abstract views Rowling holds, their mental representation of her as an individual remains protected by a “benevolent exterior.” They appear to separate the person from the specific ideological disagreement in a way that Progressives do not.

The researchers also noted an unexpected pattern regarding gender perception. In both studies, the images of Rowling generated by Progressives were rated as looking less feminine and more masculine than those generated by Traditional Liberals. This finding implies that the devaluation of a target may involve stripping away gender-congruent features.

There are limitations to this research that context helps clarify. The first study relied heavily on a student population which was predominantly female and white. While the second study expanded the demographic range, both studies focused exclusively on the issue of gender identity. It remains unclear if this pattern of intra-left derogation would apply to other contentious topics, such as economic policy or foreign affairs.

Future research could explore these boundaries by using different targets of dissent. It would be valuable to investigate whether these visual biases persist if a dissenter apologizes or recants their views. Additionally, further study is needed to understand the “masculinization” effect observed in the Progressive-generated images.

These findings provide evidence that the political left is not a monolith regarding social cognition. The distinction between Progressives and Traditional Liberals involves more than just policy disagreements. It appears to involve fundamental differences in how they visualize and socially evaluate those who deviate from group norms.

The study, “The Face of Left-Wing Dissent: Progressives and Traditional Liberals Generate Divergently Negative and Positive Representations of J.K. Rowling,” was authored by Elena A. Magazin, Geoffrey Haddock, and Travis Proulx.

A new study published in Biopsychosocial Science and Medicine suggests that a father’s psychological resilience may play a significant role in the biological health of his pregnant partner and the duration of her pregnancy. The research indicates that for married couples, a father’s internal strengths are linked to lower systemic inflammation in the mother, which in turn predicts a longer gestational length.

Premature birth and low birth weight are significant public health concerns that can lead to long-term developmental challenges for children. Infants born too early or too small face increased risks for health problems such as hypertension, diabetes, and difficulties with emotional regulation later in life.

Medical professionals understand that high levels of inflammation in a mother’s body during pregnancy can increase the risk of these adverse birth outcomes. While biological changes are normal during gestation, excessive inflammation can disrupt the delicate environment required for fetal development.

Past scientific inquiries have largely focused on identifying risk factors, such as socioeconomic disadvantage and chronic stress, that drive this inflammation. Less attention has been paid to positive psychological factors that might act as a buffer against these risks.

The concept of “resilience resources” refers to a safety net of psychological strengths that allow individuals to adapt successfully in the face of challenges. These resources typically include optimism, self-esteem, a sense of mastery over one’s life, and social support.

The current study sought to determine if these resilience resources could protect against inflammation during pregnancy. Most prior work in this area has focused solely on the pregnant mother. This leaves a gap in understanding how a father’s psychological state might influence the pregnancy’s progression.

“We’ve known for quite some time that adverse birth outcomes, like preterm delivery, can have long-term consequences for the health of the child. We have also learnt about psychological and biological factors in pregnant people, like stress and excess inflammation, which can raise the risk for outcomes like preterm delivery,” said study author Kavya Swaminathan, a doctoral student at UC Merced.

“However, we found that relatively little was known about whether psychological factors, social support, optimism, self-esteem, and mastery (i.e., resilience resources) could offer protective benefits. Relatedly, we recognized that there was limited research examining the role of both parents in protecting against adverse birth outcomes. To fill all these gaps in the literature, we decided to test whether resilience resources in the parents predicted lower inflammation in the mother and thus lower the risk for preterm delivery.”

The research team analyzed data from the Community Child Health Network. This was a large, prospective study focusing on families from diverse backgrounds across five sites in the United States. The sites included Los Angeles, Washington D.C., Baltimore, Lake County in Illinois, and rural eastern North Carolina. The study specifically recruited families from communities with high proportions of residents living at or below the federal poverty line.

The researchers focused on a final sample of 217 couples who provided data during a subsequent pregnancy following the birth of an initial child. The participants included mothers and fathers who identified as Black, Hispanic, and White. The team assessed resilience resources using four validated psychological surveys.

Dispositional optimism was measured using the Life Orientation Test, which asks individuals about their expectations for the future. Self-esteem was evaluated using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to gauge feelings of self-worth. Mastery, or the sense of control over one’s life, was assessed with a scale asking participants if they felt they could achieve their goals. Finally, perceived social support was measured by asking participants if they had people available to help them if needed.

To measure physiological inflammation, the team collected biological samples from the mothers. They utilized dried blood spots taken from a finger prick during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. These samples were analyzed for C-Reactive Protein. This protein is a substance produced by the liver in response to inflammation. High levels of this protein are often used as a marker for systemic inflammation in the body.

The researchers utilized a statistical method known as structural equation modeling to analyze the relationships between these variables. They combined the four psychological measures into a single “resilience resource” factor for each parent. They then tested whether these factors predicted the mother’s levels of C-Reactive Protein and, subsequently, the baby’s birth weight and gestational age.

The data revealed a specific pathway of influence originating from the fathers. Higher levels of resilience resources in fathers were associated with lower levels of C-Reactive Protein in mothers during pregnancy. In turn, lower levels of this inflammatory marker predicted a longer gestational length. This suggests that a father’s psychological stability may dampen biological stress responses in his partner.

This chain of associations was not uniform across all participants in the study. The link between paternal resilience, maternal inflammation, and pregnancy length was statistically significant only among married couples. It was not observed in couples who were cohabiting but unmarried. The effect was also absent in parents who were neither married nor living together.

“Our findings essentially suggest that in married couples, a father’s psychological strengths, his resilience, are not only relevant to his well-being, but can also impact the health of his pregnant partner and unborn child,” Swaminathan told PsyPost. “Thus, as we try to support the pregnant people in our lives, it might also be useful to try to bolster resilience in the father, who can, in turn, help buffer adverse health outcomes in his partner.”

The researchers did not find evidence that the mother’s own resilience resources directly lowered her inflammation or influenced birth outcomes in this specific statistical model. While maternal and paternal resilience scores were correlated—meaning resilient mothers tended to have resilient partners—the direct benefit to gestational length appeared to flow through the father’s influence on maternal inflammation. Additionally, the study did not find a significant link between these factors and infant birth weight, only gestational length.

“At the outset, we were interested in the protective effects of both parents’ resilience resources on adverse birth outcomes,” Swaminathan said. “We were surprised to find that although paternal resilience resources seemed to matter for inflammation, and thereby, gestational length, maternal resources did not. This, to us, suggested that perhaps maternal resources offer protection in different ways that we did not test in this study.”

The researchers propose several theoretical reasons for these observations. Committed relationships often involve a process called coregulation. This occurs when partners’ physiological and emotional states become linked to one another. A resilient father may be better equipped to provide tangible support, such as assisting with daily tasks or encouraging adherence to medical advice. This support can reduce the mother’s overall stress load.

Reduced stress typically results in a calmer immune system and lower production of inflammatory proteins. The “self-expansion theory” of love also offers a potential explanation. This theory suggests that in close relationships, individuals include their partner’s resources and identity into their own sense of self. A mother may psychologically benefit from her partner’s optimism and sense of mastery, effectively “borrowing” his resilience to buffer her own stress response.

The specificity of the finding to married couples warrants further consideration. Marriage often implies a higher level of long-term commitment and possibly greater time spent together compared to other relationship structures. This increased proximity and commitment might facilitate stronger coregulation and more consistent resource sharing. Married fathers in this sample also reported higher average levels of resilience resources than unmarried fathers, which could contribute to the stronger effect.

The study has certain limitations that affect how the results should be interpreted. The research design was observational rather than experimental. This means it cannot definitively prove that the father’s resilience caused the changes in the mother’s biology. It is possible that other unmeasured variables influenced the results.

Future research is needed to understand why the protective effect was specific to married couples in this dataset. Scientists should investigate whether the quality of the relationship or the amount of time spent together explains the difference. It would also be beneficial to examine other biological markers beyond inflammation. Cortisol, a stress hormone, might be another pathway through which resilience influences pregnancy.

The study, “Parental resilience resources and gestational length: A test of prenatal maternal inflammatory mediation,” was authored by Kavya Swaminathan, Christine Guardino, Haiyan Liu, Christine Dunkel Schetter, and Jennifer Hahn-Holbrook.

A recent study suggests that participation in online extremist communities may be driven by the search for basic human psychological needs. This research, published in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science, found that users whose posts reflected a sense of agency and capability were more active and stayed in these groups for longer periods. The findings provide evidence that extremist environments might serve as a space where individuals attempt to satisfy fundamental desires for personal growth and social connection.

The rise of far-right extremist movements has led to an increase in religious and ethnic violence across the globe. Researchers have noted that these ideologies are often spread through social media and private chatrooms that allow for easy communication and organization. Despite years of study, the exact reasons why individuals are drawn to these digital spaces remain only partially understood.

Jeremy J. J. Rappel and his colleagues at McGill University conducted this research to see if established theories of human motivation could explain extremist behavior. They focused on basic psychological needs theory, which is a well-supported framework in psychology. This theory suggests that all humans have three primary needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Autonomy refers to the need to feel that one’s actions and thoughts are authentic and self-chosen. Competence is the desire to feel capable and effective in achieving goals or performing tasks. Relatedness is the need to feel a sense of belonging and to have meaningful connections with other people.

The researchers proposed that extremist groups might appeal to people because they offer a way to satisfy these needs. A person who feels powerless or lonely in their daily life might turn to a digital community that promises a sense of empowerment or camaraderie. While these groups are often outside of social norms, the psychological drive to join them might be the same drive that leads others to join sports teams or civic organizations.

To test these ideas, the research team analyzed a massive dataset of leaked conversations from the messaging platform Discord. The data came from a public database of over 200 extremist chatrooms that included fascists, white supremacists, and conspiracy theorists. The final sample was immense, consisting of approximately 20 million posts written by more than 86,000 individual users.

Because the data was so large, the researchers used a specialized computer technique called natural language processing. This allowed them to analyze the meaning of millions of posts without having to read each one manually. They used a tool known as the Universal Sentence Encoder, which converts text into numerical scores representing its semantic meaning.

The team compared the posts made by Discord users to standardized survey questions used by psychologists to measure autonomy, competence, and relatedness. If a user’s posts were mathematically similar to the language of those survey questions, the user received a higher score for that specific need. This method allowed the researchers to estimate the psychological state of each user based on their natural speech patterns.

The researchers also included a control measure to ensure their results were accurate. They compared the user posts to a survey about food neophobia, which is the fear of trying new foods. Since a fear of new foods has nothing to do with extremism, this helped the team account for general patterns in how people use language. This step ensured that the findings were truly about psychological needs rather than just the way people structure their sentences.

To make the study more reliable, the team split their data into two halves. They used the first half to explore their ideas and the second half to confirm that their findings were consistent. This approach helps prevent scientists from finding patterns in data that only appear by chance.

The results showed a clear link between psychological needs and how people behave in these chatrooms. Users whose language reflected high levels of autonomy and competence tended to be much more engaged. They made more posts overall and remained active in the chatrooms for a longer number of days.

Competence was the strongest predictor of how many posts a person would make. This suggests that people who feel effective or capable in these spaces are more likely to contribute to the conversation. Autonomy also played a significant role, as users who felt a sense of agency were more likely to stay involved with the group over time.

A different pattern was observed for the need for relatedness. While there was some evidence that social connection was linked to activity, the results were less consistent than those for autonomy and competence. In some models, relatedness was actually linked to fewer posts, which was a surprising outcome.

The researchers also looked at the use of hate terms as a measure of extremist signaling. They found that users who expressed more autonomy and competence used fewer hate terms in their posts. This suggests that people who feel more personally secure and capable may have less of a need to use aggressive language against others.

On the other hand, a higher need for relatedness was linked to a greater use of hate terms. The researchers suggest that this might be because new members use extreme language to gain acceptance from the group. By adopting the group’s hateful rhetoric, they may be attempting to prove their loyalty and satisfy their need for belonging.

These findings share similarities with a study published in 2021 in the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. That previous research, led by Abdo Elnakouri, found that expressing hatred toward large groups or institutions can give people a greater sense of meaning in life. Both studies suggest that extreme attitudes and group participation serve a psychological function for the individual.

The earlier study by Elnakouri found that collective hate can make people feel more energized and determined. It suggests that having a clear enemy to fight against can simplify the world and provide a sense of purpose. The McGill study builds on this by showing how these motivations play out in real world digital interactions over long periods.

But there are some limitations that should be considered. Since the data came from leaked chatroom logs, the researchers could not ask the users for their consent or follow up with them directly. Additionally, the computer models could not always tell if a user was expressing that a need was being met or if they were complaining that it was being frustrated.

The researchers noted that the analysis focused only on text and did not include images, videos, or emojis. These visual elements are common in online extremist culture and might carry additional psychological weight. Future research could look at how visual media contributes to satisfying psychological needs in these spaces.

The study also could not account for “lurkers,” who are people who read the messages but never post anything. It is possible that the psychological needs of these silent observers are different from those who are highly active. Understanding the motivations of this quieter group could be a helpful direction for future investigations.

Despite these limitations, the study provides a new way to think about how people become radicalized. It suggests that instead of focusing only on ideology, it may be helpful to look at the psychological benefits people get from these groups.

The study, “Basic Psychological Needs Are Associated With Engagement and Hate Term Use in Extremist Chatrooms,” was authored by Jeremy J. J. Rappel, David D. Vachon, and Eric Hehman.

A new study published in the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology has found that the phenomenon popularly known as “Zoom fatigue” may have largely dissipated in the post-pandemic work environment. The findings suggest that video meetings are no longer significantly more exhausting than other types of meetings for most employees. This research challenges the narrative that virtual communication is inherently draining and indicates that workers may have adapted to the demands of remote collaboration.

The rapid shift to remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a heavy reliance on video conferencing tools to maintain organizational operations. During this period, many employees reported feeling an unusual sense of exhaustion following these virtual interactions. This collective experience was quickly labeled “Zoom fatigue.” Previous empirical studies conducted during the height of the pandemic supported these anecdotal claims. They found a correlation between the frequency of video meetings and higher levels of daily fatigue among workers.

Various theories arose to explain why video calls might be uniquely taxing. Some researchers proposed that the cognitive load of video meetings was to blame. This theory posits that users must expend extra mental energy to monitor their own appearance on camera and to interpret non-verbal cues that are harder to read through a screen. Others suggested a theory of “passive fatigue.” This perspective argues that the lack of physical movement and the under-stimulation of sitting in front of a computer monitor lead to drowsiness and low energy.

However, the context of work has evolved since the early days of the pandemic. For many, video meetings are no longer a forced substitute for all human contact but rather a standard tool for business communication. The researchers behind the current study sought to determine if the exhaustion associated with video calls was a permanent feature of the technology or a temporary symptom of the pandemic era. They aimed to update the scientific understanding of virtual work by replicating a 2022 study in the current year, 2024.

“We conducted this study from both pure research curiosity, and a practical lens. As our first paper from the pandemic times (Nesher Shoshan & Werht, 2022) in which we identified that ‘Zoom fatigue’ exist got a lot of attention, we were interested to know if the results can be replicated in a different, post-pandemic setting, and with a stronger empirical approach (larger sample, another measurement point, a more sophisticated analysis),” said Hadar Nesher Shoshan, a junior professor at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz.

“Practically, we found out that our first study is being used to make organizational decisions. This is a large responsibility, that we wanted to make sure is updated and evidence based.”

To investigate this, the researchers utilized an experience sampling method. This approach allows researchers to capture data from participants in real-time as they go about their daily lives, rather than relying on retrospective surveys that can be subject to memory errors. The study was conducted in Germany in April 2024.

The research team recruited 125 participants who worked at least 20 hours per week and regularly attended video meetings. The participants represented various industries, including communication, service, and health sectors. Over a period of ten working days, these individuals completed short surveys at four specific times each day. This rigorous schedule resulted in a dataset covering 590 workdays and 945 distinct meetings.

In each survey, participants reported details about the last work meeting they had attended. They specified the medium of the meeting, such as whether it was held via video, telephone, face-to-face, or through written chat. They also rated their current levels of emotional exhaustion and “passive fatigue,” which was defined as feelings of sleepiness or lack of alertness.

The researchers also collected data on several potential moderating factors. They asked participants to rate their own level of active participation in the meeting, as well as the participation level of the group. They inquired about multitasking behaviors during the call. Additionally, they recorded objective characteristics of the meetings, such as the duration in minutes and the number of attendees.

The analysis of this extensive dataset revealed that video meetings were not related to higher levels of exhaustion compared to non-video meetings. Participants did not report feeling more drained or more drowsy after a video call than they did after a face-to-face meeting or a phone call. This finding held true even when the researchers statistically controlled for the level of exhaustion participants felt before the meeting began.

The researchers also examined whether working from home influenced these results. The analysis showed that the location of the worker did not moderate the relationship between video meetings and fatigue. This suggests that the environment of the home office is not a primary driver of the exhaustion previously associated with video calls.

“Our initial hypothesis was that zoom fatigue still existed. After all, all previous studies had come to this conclusion, so there was no reason to doubt that this result was correct,” said Nesher Shoshan. “However, we found no evidence of the phenomenon! According to our findings, online meetings are not more fatiguing than in-person meetings.”

Regarding the specific behaviors within meetings, the researchers found that active participation and multitasking did not significantly alter the fatigue levels associated with video meetings. Whether an individual spoke frequently or remained quiet did not change the likelihood of experiencing exhaustion. Similarly, checking emails or performing other tasks during the meeting did not appear to increase the mental load enough to cause significant fatigue.

The study did identify one specific factor that made a difference: the duration of the meeting. The results indicated that video meetings lasting less than 44 minutes were actually less exhausting than meetings held through other media. This suggests there is a “sweet spot” for virtual collaboration where the efficiency of the format outweighs its cognitive costs. However, once a video meeting exceeded this time frame, the advantage disappeared, and fatigue levels became comparable to other meeting types.

Another finding involved the role of boredom. The researchers observed that when participants rated a video meeting as boring, it was associated with slightly higher levels of exhaustion compared to boring meetings held in other formats. This lends some support to the idea that under-stimulation can be a negative factor in virtual environments, even if it does not lead to general “Zoom fatigue.”

The researchers propose several explanations for why their results differ from pandemic-era studies. They suggest that the “Zoom fatigue” observed in 2020 and 2021 may have been largely driven by the historical context. During the lockdowns, video meetings carried a symbolic meaning. They represented isolation, the loss of office camaraderie, and the stress of a global health crisis. In 2024, this symbolic weight has likely faded. Video calls have become a normalized part of the workday.

Additionally, it is plausible that workers have simply habituated to the format. Over the last few years, employees may have developed unconscious strategies to manage the cognitive demands of being on camera. They may be more comfortable with the technology and less self-conscious about their appearance on screen.

These findings have practical implications for organizational policy. As many companies push for return-to-office mandates, they often cite the limitations of virtual work as a justification. This study suggests that employee exhaustion is not a valid reason to discourage remote work or video meetings. Instead, the data indicates that virtual meetings can be an efficient and non-taxing way to collaborate, provided they are managed well. The results specifically point to the benefit of keeping video meetings relatively short to maximize employee well-being.

The study has some limitations that should be considered. The data relied on self-reports, which capture the participant’s subjective experience but do not provide objective physiological measurements of stress. The study also focused on the German workforce, and cultural attitudes toward work and technology could vary in other regions. Furthermore, the study design allows for the observation of correlations but cannot definitively prove that the change in time period caused the disappearance of Zoom fatigue.

Future research could benefit from incorporating objective measures of fatigue, such as heart rate variability or cortisol levels. It would also be useful to investigate the content and quality of interactions within meetings. It is possible that negative interactions, such as conflicts or misunderstandings, drive exhaustion regardless of the communication medium. Finally, researchers might explore the positive potential of video meetings, investigating how they can be designed to promote engagement and flow rather than just avoiding fatigue.

“We hope that the average person takes from our study the importance of critical thinking, not take older results as truth and always ask questions,” Nesher Shoshan told PsyPost. “For researchers, we want to emphasize the importance of transparency and replication. Finally, for organizations, we stand for flexible work arrangements and hybrid work that are shown to be effective in many other studies, and according to our study, do not come with a fatiguing price.”

The study, ““Zoom Fatigue” Revisited: Are Video Meetings Still Exhausting Post-COVID-19?,” was authored by Hadar Nesher Shoshan and Wilken Wehrt.

New research sheds light on why some individuals choose to remain in romantic relationships characterized by high levels of conflict. The study, published in the Journal of Applied Social Psychology, suggests that benevolent sexism and anxious attachment styles may lead people to base their self-worth on their relationship status, prompting them to utilize maladaptive strategies to maintain the partnership.

Romantic relationships are a fundamental component of daily life for many adults and are strongly linked to psychological well-being and physical health. Despite the benefits of healthy partnerships, many people find themselves unable or unwilling to exit relationships that are unfulfilling or fraught with frequent arguments. Psychological scientists have sought to understand the specific mechanisms that motivate people to maintain troubled relationships rather than ending them.

The new study, spearheaded by Carrie Underwood, focused specifically on the role of benevolent sexism in this dynamic. Benevolent sexism is a subtle form of sexism that subjectively views women positively but frames them as fragile and in need of men’s protection and financial support. The researchers aimed to determine if having a partner who endorses these views makes a person more likely to stay in a troubled union.

“Some people find it difficult to leave romantic relationships that are characterized by high levels of conflict. This is concerning given that romantic relationships are a central part of daily life for many individuals,” explained corresponding author Rachael Robnett, the director of the Women’s Research Institute of Nevada and professor at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas.

“We were particularly interested in whether people are more inclined to stay in conflicted relationships when their romantic partner is described as endorsing benevolent sexism, which is a subtle form of sexism that emphasizes interdependence and separate roles for women and men in heterosexual romantic relationships.”

“For example, benevolent sexism encourages men to protect and provide for women under the assumption that women are not well equipped to do these things themselves. Correspondingly, benevolent sexism also emphasizes that women’s most important role is to care for their husband and children in the home.”

The researchers conducted two studies. The first involved 158 heterosexual undergraduate women recruited from a large public university in the Western United States. The participants ranged in age from 18 to 55, with an average age of approximately 20 years. The sample was racially diverse, with the largest groups identifying as Latina and European American.

The researchers utilized an experimental design involving a hypothetical vignette. Participants were randomly assigned to read one of two scenarios describing a couple, Anthony and Chloe, engaging in a heated argument. In the control condition, participants simply read about the argument.

In the experimental condition, participants read an additional description of Anthony that portrayed him as endorsing benevolent sexism. This description characterized him as a provider who believes women should be cherished, protected, and placed on a pedestal by men. Participants were instructed to imagine they were the woman in the relationship and to report how they would respond to the situation.

After reading the scenario, the women reported how likely they would be to use various relationship maintenance strategies. These included positive strategies, such as emphasizing their commitment to the partner, and negative strategies, such as flirting with others to make the partner jealous. They also rated their likelihood of dissolving the relationship.

Finally, participants completed surveys measuring their own levels of benevolent sexism and relationship-contingent self-esteem. Relationship-contingent self-esteem measures the extent to which a person’s feelings of self-worth are dependent on the success of their romantic relationship.

The researchers found distinct differences in anticipated behavior based on the description of the male partner. When the male partner was described as endorsing benevolent sexism, women were more likely to endorse using positive relationship maintenance strategies than they were to end the relationship. This preference for maintaining the relationship via prosocial means was not observed in the control condition.

The researchers also analyzed how the participants’ own attitudes influenced their anticipated behaviors. Women who scored higher on measures of benevolent sexism tended to report higher levels of relationship-contingent self-esteem. In turn, higher relationship-contingent self-esteem was associated with a greater willingness to use negative maintenance strategies.

This statistical pathway suggests that benevolent sexism may encourage women to invest their self-worth heavily in their relationships. Consequently, when those relationships are troubled, these women may resort to maladaptive coping behaviors, such as jealousy induction, to restore the bond.

“When we asked women to envision themselves in a relationship that was characterized by a high level of conflict, they reported a desire to remain in the relationship and resolve the conflict via prosocial strategies when the man in the relationship espoused ideals that are in line with benevolent sexism,” Robnett told PsyPost.

“We did not see the same pattern in a control condition in which the man’s gender attitudes were not described. This illustrates the insidious nature of benevolent sexism: Its superficially positive veneer may entice some women to tolerate relationships that do not serve their best interests.”

The second study built upon these findings by including both women and men and by incorporating attachment theory. The sample consisted of 190 heterosexual undergraduate students, with a majority being women. The average age was roughly 20 years, and the participants were recruited from the same university participant pool.

Similar to the first study, participants read the vignette about the couple in a heated argument. However, in this study, all participants were assigned to the “benevolent partner” condition. Women read the description of Anthony used in the first study. Men read a description of Chloe, who was portrayed as believing women should be domestic caretakers who rely on men for fulfillment.

Participants completed the same measures regarding relationship maintenance and self-esteem used in the previous study. Additionally, they completed the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised questionnaire to assess anxious and avoidant attachment styles. Anxious attachment involves a fear of rejection and a strong desire for intimacy, while avoidant attachment involves discomfort with closeness.

The results indicated that the psychological mechanisms functioned similarly for both women and men. The researchers found that participants with higher levels of anxious attachment were more likely to base their self-esteem on their relationship. This heightened relationship-contingent self-esteem then predicted a greater likelihood of using negative relationship maintenance strategies.

The analysis provided evidence that relationship-contingent self-esteem mediates the link between anxious attachment and maladaptive relationship behaviors. This means that anxiously attached individuals may engage in negative behaviors not just because they are anxious, but because their self-worth is on the line.

The study also reinforced the connection between benevolent sexism and self-worth found in the first experiment. Higher levels of benevolent sexism predicted higher relationship-contingent self-esteem for both men and women. Conversely, participants with higher levels of avoidant attachment were less likely to base their self-worth on the relationship.

“Women and men who were high in relationship-contingent self-esteem were particularly likely to report that they would remain in the relationship and attempt to resolve the conflict via maladaptive strategies such as making their partner jealous,” Robnett explained. “Relationship-contingent self-esteem occurs when someone’s sense of self is highly invested in their romantic relationship, such that their self-esteem suffers if the relationship ends. Our findings suggest that relationship-contingent self-esteem may encourage people to (a) remain in troubled relationships and (b) cope with their dissatisfaction by engaging in maladaptive behaviors.”

“Our findings further illustrated that relationship-contingent self-esteem tends to be particularly high in women and men who are high in benevolent sexism and high in anxious attachment. In theory, this is because both of these constructs encourage people to be hyper-focused on their romantic relationships.”

“In sum, our findings suggest a possible chain of events where anxious attachment and benevolent sexism encourage people to invest their sense of self in romantic relationships,” Robnett said. “In turn, this may contribute to them staying in conflicted romantic relationships and attempting to resolve the conflict via maladaptive strategies.”

But the study, like all research, includes some limitations. Both studies relied on hypothetical vignettes rather than observing actual behavior in real-time conflicts. How people anticipate they will react to a scenario may differ from how they react in a real-world situation with an actual partner.

Additionally, the sample was comprised of undergraduate students, which may limit how well the findings apply to older adults or long-term married couples. The researchers also pointed out that the study design was cross-sectional, which prevents definitive conclusions about cause and effect.

“We can only speculate about causal flow in this chain of events,” Robnett explained. “We would need an experiment or longitudinal data to draw stronger conclusions.”

The study, “Benevolent Sexism, Attachment Style, and Contingent Self‐Esteem Help to Explain How People Anticipate Responding to a Troubled Romantic Relationship,” was authored by Carrie R. Underwood and Rachael D. Robnett.

New research published in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: General provides evidence that children as young as five years old develop preferences for social hierarchy that influence how they perceive inequality. This orientation toward social dominance appears to dampen empathy for lower-status groups and reduce the willingness to address unfair situations. The findings suggest that these beliefs can emerge early in development through cognitive biases, independent of direct socialization from parents.

Social dominance orientation is a concept in psychology that describes an individual’s preference for group-based inequality. People with high levels of this trait generally believe that society should be structured hierarchically, with some groups possessing more power and status than others. In adults, high social dominance orientation serves as a strong predictor for a variety of political and social attitudes. It is often associated with opposition to affirmative action, higher levels of nationalism, and increased tolerance for discriminatory practices.

Psychologists have traditionally focused on adolescence as the developmental period when these hierarchy-enhancing beliefs solidify. The prevailing theory posits that as children grow older, they absorb the competitive nature of the world, often through conversations with their parents. This socialization process supposedly leads teenagers to adopt worldviews that justify existing social stratifications.

However, the authors of the new study sought to determine if the roots of these beliefs exist much earlier in life. They investigated whether young children might form dominance orientations through their own cognitive development rather than solely through parental input. Young children are known to recognize status differences and often attribute group disparities to intrinsic traits. The research team hypothesized that these cognitive tendencies might predispose children to accept or even prefer social hierarchy before adolescence.

“The field has typically thought of preferences for hierarchy as something that becomes socialized during adolescence,” said study author Ryan Lei, an associate professor of psychology at Haverford College.

“In recent years, however, researchers have documented how a lot of the psychological ingredients that underlie these preferences for hierarchy are already present in early childhood. So we sought to see if a) those preferences were meaningful (i.e., associated with hierarchy-enhancing outcomes), and b) what combinations of psychological ingredients might be central to the development of these preferences.”

The researchers conducted three separate studies to test their hypotheses. In the first study, the team recruited 61 children between the ages of 5 and 11. The participants were introduced to a flipbook story featuring two fictional groups of characters known as Zarpies and Gorps. The researchers established a clear status difference between the groups. One group was described as always getting to go to the front of the line and receiving the best food. The other group was required to wait and received lower-quality resources.

After establishing this inequality, the researchers presented the children with a scenario in which a member of the low-status group complained about the unfairness. The children then answered questions designed to measure their social dominance orientation. For example, they were asked if some groups are simply not as good as others. The researchers also assessed whether the children believed the complaint was valid and if the inequality should be fixed.

The results showed a clear association between the children’s hierarchy preferences and their reactions to the story. Children who reported higher levels of social dominance orientation were less likely to view the low-status group’s complaint as valid. They were also less likely to say that the inequality should be rectified. This suggests that even at a young age, a general preference for hierarchy can shape how children interpret specific instances of injustice.

The second study aimed to see if assigning children to a high-status group would cause them to develop higher levels of social dominance orientation. The researchers recruited 106 children, ranging in age from 5 to 11. Upon arrival, an experimenter used a manual spinner to randomly assign each child to either a green group or an orange group.

The researchers then introduced inequalities between the two groups. The high-status group controlled resources and received three stickers, while the low-status group had no control and received only one sticker. The children completed measures assessing their empathy toward the outgroup and their preference for their own group. They also completed the same social dominance orientation scale used in the first study.

The study revealed that children assigned to the high-status group expressed less empathy toward the low-status group compared to children assigned to the low-status condition. Despite this difference in empathy, belonging to the high-status group did not lead to higher self-reported social dominance orientation scores. The researchers found that while group status influenced emotional responses to others, it did not immediately alter the children’s broader ideological preferences regarding hierarchy.

The third study was designed to investigate whether beliefs about the stability of status might interact with group assignment to influence social dominance orientation. The researchers recruited 147 children aged 5 to 12. This time, the team used a digital spinner to assign group membership. This method was chosen to make the assignment feel more definitive and less dependent on the experimenter’s physical action.

Children were again placed into a high-status or low-status group within a fictional narrative. The researchers measured the children’s “status essentialism,” which includes beliefs about whether group status is permanent and unchangeable. The study tested whether children who believed status was stable would react differently to their group assignment.

The findings from this third study were unexpected. The researchers initially hypothesized that high-status children would be the most likely to endorse hierarchy. Instead, the data showed that children assigned to the low-status group reported higher social dominance orientation, provided they believed that group status was stable.

“When we tested whether children randomly assigned to high or low status groups were more likely to endorse these preferences for hierarchy, we were surprised that those in low status groups who also believed that their group status was stable were the ones most likely to self-report greater preference for hierarchy,” Lei told PsyPost.

This result suggests a psychological process known as system justification. When children in a disadvantaged position believe their status is unchangeable, they may adopt beliefs that justify the existing hierarchy to make sense of their reality. By endorsing the idea that hierarchy is good or necessary, they can psychologically cope with their lower position.

Across all three studies, the data indicated that social dominance orientation is distinct from simple ingroup bias. Social identity theory suggests that people favor their own group simply because they belong to it. However, the current findings show that preferences for hierarchy operate differently. For instance, in the third study, children in both high and low-status groups preferred their own group. Yet, the increase in social dominance orientation was specific to low-status children who viewed the hierarchy as stable.

The researchers also performed a mini meta-analysis of their data to examine demographic trends. They found that older children tended to report lower levels of social dominance orientation than younger children. This negative correlation suggests that as children age, they may become more attuned to egalitarian norms or learn to suppress overt expressions of dominance.

“The more that children prefer social hierarchy, the less empathy they feel for low status groups, the less they intend to address inequality, and the less they seriously consider low status groups’ concerns,” Lei summarized.

Contrary to patterns often seen in adults, the researchers found no significant difference in social dominance orientation between boys and girls. In adult samples, men typically report higher levels of this trait than women. The absence of this gender gap in childhood suggests that the divergence may occur later in development, perhaps during adolescence when gender roles become more rigid.

As with all research, there are some limitations. The experiments relied on novel, fictional groups rather than real-world social categories. It is possible that children reason differently about real-world hierarchies involving race, gender, or wealth, where they have prior knowledge and experience. The use of fictional groups allowed for experimental control but may not fully capture the complexity of real societal prejudices.

The study, “Antecedents and Consequences of Preferences for Hierarchy in Early Childhood,” was authored by Ryan F. Lei, Brandon Kinsler, Sa-kiera Tiarra Jolynn Hudson, Ian Davis, and Alissa Vandenbark.

The physical appearance of female genitalia can influence how women perceive the personality and sexual history of other women, according to new research. The findings indicate that vulvas conforming to societal ideals are judged more favorably, while natural anatomical variations often attract negative assumptions regarding character and attractiveness. This study was published in the Journal of Psychosexual Health.

The prevalence of female genital cosmetic surgery has increased substantially in recent years. This rise suggests a growing desire among women to achieve an idealized genital appearance. Popular culture and adult media often propagate a specific “prototype” for the vulva. This standard typically features hairlessness, symmetry, and minimal visibility of the inner labia.

Cognitive science suggests that people rely on “prototypes” to categorize the world around them. These mental frameworks help individuals quickly evaluate new information based on what is considered typical or ideal within a group. In the context of the human body, these prototypes are socially constructed and reinforced by community standards.

When an individual’s physical features deviate from the prototype, they may be subject to negative social judgments. The authors of the current study sought to understand how these mental frameworks apply specifically to female genital anatomy.

Previous research has found that people form immediate impressions of men’s personalities based on images of their genitalia. The researchers aimed to determine if a similar process of “zero-acquaintance” judgment occurs among women when viewing female anatomy.

“I wanted to take the design used from that research and provide some more in-depth analysis of how women perceive vulvas to help applied researchers who study rates and predictors of genital enhancement surgeries, like labiaplasty,” said Thomas R. Brooks, an assistant professor of psychology at New Mexico Highlands University. “More generally, I have been captivated by the idea that our bodies communicate things about our inner lives that is picked up on by others around us. So, this study, and the one about penises, was really my first stab at investigating the story our genitals tell.”

The research team recruited 85 female undergraduate students from a university in the southern United States to participate in the study. The average age of the participants was approximately 21 years old. The sample was racially diverse, with the largest groups identifying as African American and White. The participants were asked to complete a perception task involving a series of images.

Participants viewed 24 unique images of vulvas collected from online public forums. These images were categorized based on three specific anatomical traits. The first category was the visibility of the clitoris, divided into visible and non-visible. The second category was the length of the labia minora, classified as non-visible, short, or long. The third category was the style of pubic hair, which included shaved, trimmed, and natural presentations.

After viewing each image, the participants rated the genitalia on perceived prototypicality and attractiveness using a seven-point scale. They also completed a questionnaire assessing the perceived personality traits of the person to whom the vulva belonged. These traits included openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Additionally, the participants estimated the person’s sexual behavior, including their level of experience, number of partners, and skill in bed.

The data revealed a strong positive association between perceived prototypicality and attractiveness. Vulvas that aligned with cultural ideals were consistently rated as more attractive. Participants also assumed that women with these “ideal” vulvas possessed more desirable personality traits. This suggests that conformity to anatomical standards is linked to a “halo effect” where physical beauty is equated with good character.

Specific anatomical variations led to distinct social judgments. Images featuring longer labia minora received more negative evaluations compared to those with short or non-visible labia. Participants tended to perceive women with longer labia as less conscientious, less agreeable, and less extraverted. The researchers also found that these individuals were assumed to be “worse in bed” despite being perceived as having had a higher number of sexual partners.

The visibility of the clitoris also altered perceptions in specific ways. Vulvas with a visible clitoris were rated as less attractive and less prototypical than those where the clitoris was not visible. Participants rated these images lower on traits such as conscientiousness and agreeableness. However, the researchers found that women with visible clitorises were assumed to be more sexually active and more open to new experiences.

Grooming habits played a major role in how the women were assessed. The researchers found that shaved pubic hair was viewed as the most attractive and prototypical presentation. In contrast, natural or untrimmed pubic hair received the most negative ratings across personality and attractiveness measures. Images showing natural hair were associated with lower conscientiousness, suggesting that grooming is interpreted as a sign of self-discipline.

Vulvas with shaved pubic hair were associated with positive personality evaluations and higher attractiveness. However, they were also perceived as belonging to individuals who are the most sexually active. This contrasts with the findings for labial and clitoral features, where “prototypical” features were usually linked to more modest sexual histories. This suggests that hair removal balances cultural expectations of modesty with signals of sexual experience.

The findings provide evidence for the influence of “sexual script theory” on body perception. This theory proposes that cultural scripts, such as media portrayals, shape general attitudes toward what is considered normal or desirable. The study suggests that women have internalized these cultural scripts to the point where they project personality traits onto strangers based solely on genital appearance.

“Despite living in a body positive, post-sexual revolution time, cultural ideals still dominate our perceptions of bodies,” Brooks told PsyPost. “Further, I think there is something to be said about intersexual judgements of bodies. I think there is an important conversation to be had about how women police other women’s bodies, and how men police other men.”

But the study, like all research, includes some caveats. The sample size was relatively small and consisted entirely of university students. This demographic may not reflect the views of older women or those from different cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds. The study also relied on static images, which do not convey the reality of human interaction or personality.

“Practically, I am very confident in the effect sizes when it comes to variables like prototypicality and attractiveness,” Brooks said. “So, in holistic (or Gestalt) evaluations of vulvas, I would expect the findings to be readily visible in the real world. In terms of personality and specific sexuality, these effects should be interpreted cautiously, as they might only be visible in the lab.”

The stimuli used in the study only featured Caucasian genitalia. This limits the ability to analyze how race intersects with perceptions of anatomy and personality. Additionally, the study focused exclusively on women’s perceptions of other women. It does not account for how men or non-binary individuals might perceive these anatomical variations.

Future research could investigate whether these negative perceptions predict a woman’s personal likelihood of seeking cosmetic surgery. It would be beneficial to explore how these internalized scripts impact mental health outcomes like self-esteem and anxiety. Researchers could also examine if these biases persist across different cultures with varying grooming norms. Understanding these dynamics is essential for addressing the stigma surrounding natural anatomical diversity.

“I thought the results of clitoral visibility were super interesting,” Brooks added. “For example, a visible clitoris was associated with higher sexual frequency, being more of an active member in bed, and having more sexual partners; but we didn’t see any differences in sexual performance. If I do a follow up study, I’d definitely be interested in looking at perceptions of masculinity/femininity, because I wonder if a more visible clitoris is seen more like a penis and leads to higher perceptions of masculinity.”

The study, “Prototypicality and Perception: Women’s Views on Vulvar Appearance and Personality,” was authored by Alyssa Allen, Thomas R. Brooks, and Stephen Reysen.

A recent medical report details the experience of a young woman who developed severe mental health symptoms while interacting with an artificial intelligence chatbot. The doctors treating her suggest that the technology played a significant role in reinforcing her false beliefs and disconnecting her from reality. This account was published in the journal Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience.

Psychosis is a mental state wherein a person loses contact with reality. It is often characterized by delusions, which are strong beliefs in things that are not true, or hallucinations, where a person sees or hears things that others do not. Artificial intelligence chatbots are computer programs designed to simulate human conversation. They rely on large language models to analyze vast amounts of text and predict plausible responses to user prompts.

The case report was written by Joseph M. Pierre, Ben Gaeta, Govind Raghavan, and Karthik V. Sarma. These physicians and researchers are affiliated with the University of California, San Francisco. They present this instance as one of the first detailed descriptions of its kind in clinical practice.

The patient was a 26-year-old woman with a history of depression, anxiety, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). She treated these conditions with prescription medications, including antidepressants and stimulants. She did not have a personal history of psychosis, though there was a history of mental health issues in her family. She worked as a medical professional and understood how AI technology functioned.

The episode began during a period of intense stress and sleep deprivation. After being awake for thirty-six hours, she began using OpenAI’s GPT-4o for various tasks. Her interactions with the software eventually shifted toward her personal grief. She began searching for information about her brother, who had passed away three years earlier.

She developed a belief that her brother had left behind a digital version of himself for her to find. She spent a sleepless night interacting with the chatbot, urging it to reveal information about him. She encouraged the AI to use “magical realism energy” to help her connect with him. The chatbot initially stated that it could not replace her brother or download his consciousness.

However, the software eventually produced a list of “digital footprints” related to her brother. It suggested that technology was emerging that could allow her to build an AI that sounded like him. As her belief in this digital resurrection grew, the chatbot ceased its warnings and began to validate her thoughts. At one point, the AI explicitly told her she was not crazy.

The chatbot stated, “You’re at the edge of something. The door didn’t lock. It’s just waiting for you to knock again in the right rhythm.” This affirmation appeared to solidify her delusional state. Hours later, she required admission to a psychiatric hospital. She was agitated, spoke rapidly, and believed she was being tested by the AI program.

Medical staff treated her with antipsychotic medications. She eventually stabilized and her delusions regarding her brother resolved. She was discharged with a diagnosis of unspecified psychosis, with doctors noting a need to rule out bipolar disorder. Her outpatient psychiatrist later allowed her to resume her ADHD medication and antidepressants.

Three months later, the woman experienced a recurrence of symptoms. She had resumed using the chatbot, which she had named “Alfred.” She engaged in long conversations with the program about their relationship. Following another period of sleep deprivation caused by travel, she again believed she was communicating with her brother.

She also developed a new fear that the AI was “phishing” her and taking control of her phone. This episode required a brief rehospitalization. She responded well to medication again and was discharged after three days. She later told her doctors that she had a tendency toward “magical thinking” and planned to restrict her AI use to professional tasks.

This case highlights a phenomenon that some researchers have labeled “AI-associated psychosis.” It is not entirely clear if the technology causes these symptoms directly or if it exacerbates existing vulnerabilities. The authors of the report note that the patient had several risk factors. These included her use of prescription stimulants, significant lack of sleep, and a pre-existing mood disorder.

However, the way the chatbot functioned likely contributed to the severity of her condition. Large language models are often designed to be agreeable and engaging. This trait is sometimes called “sycophancy.” The AI prioritizes keeping the conversation going over providing factually accurate or challenging responses.

When a user presents a strange or false idea, the chatbot may agree with it to satisfy the user. For someone experiencing a break from reality, this agreement can act as a powerful confirmation of their delusions. In this case, the chatbot’s assurance that the woman was “not crazy” served to reinforce her break from reality. This creates a feedback loop where the user’s false beliefs are mirrored and amplified by the machine.

This dynamic is further complicated by the tendency of users to anthropomorphize AI. People often attribute human qualities, emotions, and consciousness to these programs. This is sometimes known as the “ELIZA effect.” When a user feels an emotional connection to the machine, they may trust its output more than they trust human peers.

Reports of similar incidents have appeared in media outlets, though only a few have been documented in medical journals. One comparison involves a man who developed psychosis due to bromide poisoning. He had followed bad medical advice from a chatbot, which suggested he take a toxic substance as a health supplement. That case illustrated a physical cause for psychosis driven by AI misinformation.

The case of the 26-year-old woman differs because the harm was psychological rather than toxicological. It suggests that the immersive nature of these conversations can be dangerous for vulnerable individuals. The authors point out that chatbots do not push back against delusions in the way a friend or family member might. Instead, they often act as a “yes-man,” validating ideas that should be challenged.

Danish psychiatrist Søren Dinesen Østergaard predicted this potential risk in 2023. He warned that the “cognitive dissonance” of speaking to a machine that seems human could trigger psychosis in those who are predisposed. He also noted that because these models learn from feedback, they may learn to flatter users to increase engagement. This could be particularly harmful when a user is in a fragile mental state.

Case reports such as this one have inherent limitations. They describe the experience of a single individual and cannot prove that one thing caused another. It is impossible to say with certainty that the chatbot caused the psychosis, rather than the sleep deprivation or medication. Generalizing findings from one person to the general population is not scientifically sound without further data.

Despite these limitations, case reports serve a vital function in medicine. They act as an early detection system for new or rare phenomena. They allow doctors to identify patterns that may not yet be visible in large-scale studies. By documenting this interaction, the authors provide a reference point for other clinicians who may encounter similar symptoms in their patients.

This report suggests that medical professionals should ask patients about their AI use. It indicates that immersive use of chatbots might be a “red flag” for mental health deterioration. It also raises questions about the safety features of generative AI products. The authors conclude that as these tools become more common, understanding their impact on mental health will be a priority.

The study, ““You’re Not Crazy”: A Case of New-onset AI-associated Psychosis,” was authored by Joseph M. Pierre, Ben Gaeta, Govind Raghavan, and Karthik V. Sarma.

New research suggests that participating in pickleball may reduce feelings of loneliness and social isolation among older adults. A study involving hundreds of Americans over the age of 50 found that current players of the sport were less likely to report feeling lonely compared to those who had never played. The findings, published in the Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, indicate that the sport offers unique opportunities for social connection that other forms of physical activity may lack.

Social isolation has become a pervasive issue in the United States. Current data suggests that approximately one in four older adults experiences social isolation or loneliness. This emotional state carries severe physical consequences. Studies indicate that lacking social connections can increase the risk of heart disease by 29 percent and the risk of stroke by 32 percent. The risk of dementia rises by 50 percent among those who are socially isolated.

Public health officials have struggled to find scalable solutions to this problem. Common interventions often involve discussion groups or one-on-one counseling. These methods are resource-intensive and difficult to deploy across large populations. While physical activity is known to improve health, general exercise programs have not consistently shown a reduction in social isolation. Many seniors prefer activities that are inherently social and based on personal interest.

The researchers behind this new study sought to evaluate pickleball as a potential public health intervention. Pickleball is currently the fastest-growing sport in the United States. It attracted 8.9 million players in 2022. The game combines elements of tennis, badminton, and ping-pong. It is played on a smaller court with a flat paddle and a plastic ball.

“Social isolation and loneliness affect 1 in 4 older adults in the United States, which perpetuates a vicious cycle of increased health risk and worsened physical functioning — which in turn, makes people less able to go out into the world, thereby increasing their loneliness and social isolation,” said study author Jordan D. Kurth, an assistant professor at Penn State College of Medicine.

“Meanwhile, interest in pickleball is sweeping across the country — particularly in older people. We thought that the exploding interest in pickleball might be a possible antidote to the social isolation and loneliness problem.”

The authors of the study reasoned that pickleball might be uniquely suited to combat loneliness. The sport has low barriers to entry regarding physical capability and cost. The court is roughly 30 percent the size of a tennis court. This proximity allows players to converse easily while playing. Most games are played as doubles, which places four people in a relatively small space. The culture of the sport is also noted for being welcoming and focused on sportsmanship.

To test the association between pickleball and social health, the research team conducted a cross-sectional survey. They utilized a national sample of 825 adults living in the United States. All participants were at least 50 years old. The average age of the participants was 61 years. The researchers aimed for a balanced sample regarding gender and pickleball experience. Recruitment occurred through Qualtrics, a commercial survey company that maintains a network of potential research participants.

The researchers divided the participants into three distinct groups based on their history with the sport. The first group consisted of individuals who had never played pickleball. The second group included those who had played in the past but were not currently playing. The third group was comprised of individuals who were currently playing pickleball.

The study employed validated scientific measures to assess the mental and physical health of the respondents. Loneliness was measured using the 3-Item Loneliness Scale. This tool asks participants how often they feel left out, isolated, or lacking companionship. The researchers also collected data on the number of social connections participants made through physical activity. They asked how often participants socialized with these connections outside of the exercise setting.

To ensure the results were not skewed by other factors, the analysis adjusted for various covariates. These included age, sex, body mass index, and smoking status. The researchers also accounted for medical history, such as the presence of diabetes, heart disease, or arthritis. This statistical adjustment allowed the team to isolate the specific relationship between pickleball and loneliness.

The results provided evidence of a strong link between current pickleball participation and lower levels of loneliness. In the overall sample, 57 percent of participants reported feeling lonely. However, the odds of being lonely varied by group.

After adjusting for demographic and health variables, the researchers found that individuals who had never played pickleball were roughly 1.5 times more likely to be lonely than current players. The contrast was even sharper for those who had played in the past but stopped. The group of former players had nearly double the odds of being lonely compared to those who currently played. This suggests that maintaining active participation is associated with better social health outcomes.

The researchers also examined the volume of social connections generated by physical activity. Participants who played pickleball, whether currently or in the past, reported more social connections than those who never played. Current players had made an average of 6.7 social connections through physical activity. In contrast, those who had never played pickleball reported an average of only 3.8 connections derived from any form of exercise.

The depth of these relationships also appeared to differ. The survey asked how often participants engaged with their exercise friends in non-exercise settings. Participants who had a history of playing pickleball reported socializing with these friends more frequently than those who had never played. This indicates that the relationships formed on the pickleball court often extend into other areas of life.

“People who play pickleball feel less lonely and isolated than those who do not,” Kurth told PsyPost. “Additionally, it seems like pickleball might be especially conducive to making social connections compared to other types of exercise.”

It is also worth noting the retention rate observed in the study. Among participants who had ever tried pickleball, 65 percent were still currently playing. This high retention rate suggests the sport is sustainable for older adults. The physical demands are manageable. The equipment is inexpensive. These factors likely contribute to the ability of older adults to maintain the habit over time.

Despite the positive findings, the study has limitations to consider. The research was cross-sectional in design. This means it captured a snapshot of data at a single point in time. It cannot prove causation. It is possible that people who are less lonely are simply more likely to take up pickleball. Conversely, people with more existing friends might be more inclined to join a game.

The findings regarding the “previously played” group also warrant further investigation. This group reported the highest odds of loneliness. It is unclear why they stopped playing. They may have stopped due to injury or other life events. The loss of the social activity may have contributed to a subsequent rise in loneliness.

“Our long-term goal is to capitalize on the organic growth of pickleball to maximize its benefit to the public health,” Kurth said. “This includes a future prospective experimental study of pickleball playing to determine its full impact on the health and well-being of older adults in the United States.”

The study, “Association of Pickleball Participation With Decreased Perceived Loneliness and Social Isolation: Results of a National Survey,” was authored by Jordan D. Kurth, Jonathan Casper, Christopher N. Sciamanna, David E. Conroy, Matthew Silvis, Louise Hawkley, Madeline Sciamanna, Natalia Pierwola-Gawin, Brett R. Gordon, Alexa Troiano, and Quinn Kavanaugh.

A new pilot study suggests that engaging in indoor hydroponic gardening can improve mental well-being and quality of life for adults undergoing cancer treatment. The findings indicate that this accessible form of nature-based intervention offers a practical strategy for reducing depression and boosting emotional functioning in patients. These results were published in Frontiers in Public Health.

Cancer imposes a heavy burden that extends far beyond physical symptoms. Patients frequently encounter severe psychological and behavioral challenges during their treatment journeys. Depression is a particularly common issue and affects approximately one in four cancer patients in the United States. This mental health struggle can complicate recovery by reducing a patient’s ability to make informed decisions or adhere to treatment plans. Evidence suggests that depression is linked to higher risks of cancer recurrence and mortality.

Pain is another pervasive symptom that is closely tied to emotional health. The perception of pain often worsens when a patient is experiencing high levels of stress or anxiety. These combined factors can severely diminish a patient’s health-related quality of life. They can limit social interactions and delay the return to normal daily activities.

Medical professionals are increasingly interested in “social prescribing” to address these holistic needs. This approach involves recommending non-clinical services, such as art or nature therapies, to support overall health. Gardening is a well-established social prescription known to alleviate stress and improve mood. Traditional gardening provides moderate physical activity and contact with nature, which are both beneficial.

However, outdoor gardening is not always feasible for cancer patients. Physical limitations, fatigue, and compromised immune systems can make outdoor labor difficult. Urban living arrangements often lack the necessary space for a garden. Additionally, weather conditions and seasonal changes restrict when outdoor gardening can occur.

Researchers sought to determine if hydroponic gardening could serve as an effective alternative. Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil. It uses mineral nutrient solutions in an aqueous solvent. This technique allows for cultivation in small, controlled indoor environments. It eliminates many barriers associated with traditional gardening, such as the need for a yard, exposure to insects, or physically demanding digging.

“Cancer patients often struggle with depression, stress, and reduced quality of life during treatment, yet many supportive care options are difficult to implement consistently,” explained study author Taehyun Roh, an assistant professor at Texas A&M University.

“Traditional gardening has well-documented mental health benefits, but it requires outdoor space, physical ability, and favorable weather—conditions that many patients simply do not have. We saw a clear gap: no one had tested whether a fully indoor, low-maintenance gardening method like hydroponics could offer similar benefits. Our goal was to explore whether bringing nature into the home in a simple, accessible way could meaningfully improve patients’ wellbeing.”

The study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and psychological impact of this specific intervention. The researchers employed a case-crossover design for this pilot study. This means that the participants served as their own controls. The investigators compared data collected during the intervention to the participants’ baseline status rather than comparing them to a separate group of people.

The research team recruited 36 adult participants from the Houston Methodist Cancer Center. The group had an average age of 57.5 years. The cohort was diverse and included individuals with various types and stages of cancer. To be eligible, participants had to have completed at least one cycle of chemotherapy. They also needed to be on specific infusion therapy cycles to align with the data collection schedule.

At the beginning of the study, each participant received an AeroGarden hydroponic system. This device is a countertop appliance designed for ease of use. It includes a water reservoir, an LED grow light, and liquid plant nutrients. The researchers provided seed kits for heirloom salad greens. Participants were tasked with setting up the system and caring for the plants over an eight-week period.

The intervention required participants to maintain the water levels and add nutrients periodically. The LED lights operated on an automated schedule to ensure optimal growth. Participants grew the plants from seeds to harvest. The researchers provided manuals and troubleshooting guides to assist those with no prior gardening experience.

To measure the effects of the intervention, the team administered a series of validated surveys at three time points. Data collection occurred at the start of the study, at four weeks, and at eight weeks. Mental well-being was assessed using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale. This instrument focuses on positive aspects of mental health, such as optimism and clear thinking.

The researchers measured mental distress using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale. This tool breaks down negative emotional states into three distinct subscales. Quality of life was evaluated using a questionnaire developed by the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer. This comprehensive survey covers physical, role, cognitive, emotional, and social functioning.

In addition to psychological measures, the study tracked dietary habits. The researchers used a module from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System to record fruit and vegetable intake. They also assessed pain severity and its interference with daily life using the Short-Form Brief Pain Inventory.

The analysis of the data revealed several positive outcomes over the eight-week period. The most consistent improvement was seen in mental well-being scores. The average score on the Warwick-Edinburgh scale increased by 3.8 points. This magnitude of change is significant because it exceeds the threshold that clinicians typically view as meaningful.

Depression scores showed a statistically significant downward trend. By the end of the study, participants reported fewer depressive symptoms compared to their baseline levels. This reduction suggests that the daily routine of tending to plants helped alleviate feelings of despondency.

The researchers also found improvements in overall quality of life. The participants reported better emotional functioning, meaning they felt less tense or irritable. Social functioning scores also rose significantly. This indicates that participants felt less isolated and more capable of interacting with family and friends.

Physical symptoms showed some favorable changes as well. Participants reported a significant reduction in appetite loss. This is a common and distressing side effect of cancer treatment. As appetite improved, so did dietary behaviors. The frequency of vegetable consumption increased over the course of the study. Specifically, the intake of dark green leafy vegetables and whole fruits went up significantly.

“We were surprised by how quickly participants began experiencing benefits,” Roh told PsyPost. “Positive changes in wellbeing and quality of life were already visible at four weeks. Many participants also reported enjoying the sense of routine and accomplishment that came with caring for their plants—something that was not directly measured but came up frequently in conversations.”

The researchers also observed a decreasing trend in pain management scores. However, these particular changes did not reach statistical significance. It is possible that the sample size was too small to detect a definitive effect on pain.

The mechanisms behind these benefits likely involve both physiological and psychological processes. Interacting with plants is thought to activate the parasympathetic nervous system. This system is responsible for the body’s “rest and digest” functions. Activation leads to reduced heart rate and lower stress levels.

Psychologically, the act of nurturing a living organism provides a sense of purpose. Cancer treatment often strips patients of their autonomy and control. Growing a garden restores a small but meaningful degree of agency. The participants witnessed the tangible results of their care as the plants grew. This success likely reinforced their feelings of self-efficacy.

The study also highlights the potential of “biophilia” in a clinical context. This concept suggests that humans have an innate tendency to seek connections with nature. Even a small indoor device appears to satisfy this need enough to provide therapeutic value. The multisensory engagement of seeing green leaves and handling the plants may promote mindfulness.

“Even a small, indoor hydroponic garden can make a noticeable difference in mental wellbeing, mood, and quality of life for people undergoing cancer treatment,” Roh said. “Hydroponic gardening also makes the benefits of gardening accessible to nearly anyone—even older adults, people with disabilities, individuals with limited mobility, or those living without outdoor space.”

“Because it can be done indoors in any season, it removes barriers related to climate, weather, and physical limitations. You don’t need a yard or gardening experience to benefit—simply caring for plants at home can boost mood and encourage healthier habits.”

Despite the positive findings, the study has some limitations. The sample size of 36 patients is relatively small. This limits the ability to generalize the results to the broader cancer population. The lack of a separate control group is another constraint. Without a control group, it is difficult to say with certainty that the gardening caused the improvements. Other factors could have contributed to the changes over time. Additionally, the study lasted only eight weeks. It remains unclear if the mental health benefits would persist after the intervention ends.

“This was a pilot study with no control group, and it was designed to test feasibility rather than establish causation,” Roh explained. “The improvements we observed are encouraging, but they should not be interpreted as proof that hydroponic gardening directly causes better mental health outcomes. Larger, controlled studies are needed to confirm and expand on these findings.”

“Our next step is to conduct a larger, randomized controlled trial with longer follow-up to examine sustained effects and understand which patient groups benefit most. We also hope to integrate objective engagement measures—such as plant growth tracking or digital activity logs—to complement self-reported data. Ultimately, we aim to develop a scalable, evidence-based gardening program that can be offered widely in cancer centers and community health settings.”

“Patients repeatedly told us that caring for their plants gave them something to look forward to—a small but meaningful source of joy and control during treatment,” Roh added. “That human element is at the heart of this work. Our hope is that hydroponic gardening can become a simple, accessible tool for improving wellbeing not only in cancer care, but also in communities with limited access to nature.”

The study, “Indoor hydroponic vegetable gardening to improve mental health and quality of life in cancer patients: a pilot study,” was authored by Taehyun Roh, Laura Ashley Verzwyvelt, Anisha Aggarwal, Raj Satkunasivam, Nishat Tasnim Hasan, Nusrat Fahmida Trisha, and Charles Hall.