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Dr Zoe Williams and nutritionist Hannah Alderson on the ‘hormone balancing’ boom

✇The Independent
By:Emilie Lavinia

We hear the term “hormone balancing” day in, day out, Instagram is awash with hormone balancing coaches and we’re constantly seeing products that claim to reinstate hormonal balance. But given that hormones are always in flux – due to the nature of them being hormones – what does the term “hormone balance” mean? TV doctor Dr Zoe Williams and nutritionist and author of Everything I Know About Hormones, Hannah Alderson discuss the balancing boom, supplements, healthy eating, the pill, menopause and more with podcast host Emilie Lavinia.

© The Independent

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A newsroom’s political makeup affects public trust, study finds

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Karina Petrova

A new study suggests that revealing the political affiliations of a newsroom’s journalists can influence public trust and engagement. The research, published in Communication Research, found that people report higher trust in news outlets they perceive as politically balanced or those that provide no political information about their staff, compared to outlets dominated by one party.

The motivation for this research stems from the steady decline of public trust in the news media within the United States. Scholars and journalists alike have been exploring ways to rebuild this confidence, with a particular focus on the concept of journalistic transparency. The idea is that by being more open about how news is gathered and produced, outlets can signal their honesty and integrity to the public. This openness can serve as a mental shortcut, or heuristic, that helps people decide whether a source is credible.

The researchers wanted to test a specific and rarely examined form of transparency: disclosing the collective political leanings of the journalists working at a news outlet. They sought to understand if this information would help or hinder trust and whether people’s own political identities would shape their reactions.

To investigate this question, the researchers conducted a series of three online experiments. In each experiment, participants were shown a brief description of a news outlet. They were then randomly assigned to see different versions of a graphic that displayed the political composition of that outlet’s newsroom. After viewing the description and graphic, participants answered questions designed to measure their trust in the outlet, their intention to use it for news in the future, and their intention to actively avoid it.

The first experiment focused on political ideology. Participants were shown information about a real news program, The National Desk, and were assigned to one of four conditions. One group received no information about the journalists’ politics, serving as a control. A second group was told the newsroom was perfectly balanced with an equal number of liberal and conservative journalists. The third and fourth groups were told the newsroom had a large majority of either liberal journalists or conservative journalists.

The results showed that participants had significantly higher trust in the outlet when it was presented as balanced or when no political information was provided. Correspondingly, they reported a greater willingness to use these outlets and a lower intention to avoid them. There was no meaningful difference in trust between the balanced outlet and the one with no political information disclosed.

This initial experiment also revealed a powerful pattern related to partisanship. Democrats and Republicans both expressed much lower trust in the outlet that was dominated by the opposing ideology. For example, Democrats rated the conservative-majority newsroom as far less trustworthy, while Republicans felt the same way about the liberal-majority newsroom. This points to a strong “out-group bias,” where people are quick to distrust a source associated with a political group they oppose.

However, the study did not find evidence of an “in-group favoritism.” Democrats did not trust the liberal-majority outlet any more than the balanced or unaffiliated one, and Republicans showed a similar lack of preference for the conservative-majority outlet.

The second experiment extended these ideas by focusing on party affiliation rather than general ideology. The design was similar, but this time the breakdown included Democrats, Republicans, and Independents. A fifth condition was added to test perceptions of a newsroom with a majority of Independent journalists.

The findings from this experiment closely mirrored the first. People reported the most trust in the outlets that were politically balanced, had a majority of Independents, or provided no partisan information at all. The outlets with a clear Democratic or Republican majority were trusted significantly less. Again, the pattern of out-group dislike was strong among both Democrats and Republicans, with no accompanying favoritism for their own party’s newsroom.

The third and final experiment was designed to confirm that these effects were not tied to the specific name of the news program used in the first two studies. The researchers replicated the second experiment’s design but used a fictional news organization called the Independent News Network, a name pre-tested to be seen as neutral.

The results were consistent for a third time. This replication strengthens the conclusion that it is the information about the political composition of the newsroom, not a pre-existing perception of an outlet’s brand, that drives these judgments about trust. The studies also consistently showed that trust acted as the key mechanism. When people perceived an outlet as less trustworthy because of its partisan slant, that decrease in trust directly led to their intentions to avoid the outlet and not use it in the future.

The researchers note some limitations to their work. The studies presented a hypothetical situation, as news organizations do not typically publicize the partisan breakdown of their staff, which means the experiments may not perfectly reflect real-world behavior. The study also measured general perceptions of an outlet without providing participants with any specific news articles, and people’s reactions might change depending on the topic of the news.

Future research could explore whether these findings hold when applied to well-known media brands, which people already have strong opinions about. It could also examine how people react to specific news stories when they are aware of the political leanings of the newsroom that produced them.

The study, “In Diversity We Trust? Examining the Effect of Political Newsroom Diversity on Media Trust, Use, and Avoidance,” was authored by Eliana DuBosar, Jay D. Hmielowski, and Muhammad Ehab Rasul.

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Researchers identify a peculiar tendency among insecure narcissists

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Karina Petrova

A new study published in the journal Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts suggests that individuals with a combination of high narcissism and psychological insecurity are more likely to be “cultural omnivores,” consuming both highbrow and lowbrow art forms. This behavior appears to be a strategy to satisfy two distinct psychological needs: signaling social status and projecting a sense of personal integrity.

Narcissism is often understood as a personality trait characterized by a grandiose sense of self, a persistent need for admiration, and a focus on one’s own importance. While this may project an image of supreme confidence, psychological research has shown that narcissism can exist alongside deep-seated feelings of insecurity, such as low self-esteem or a sense that one is not living as their “true self.” It is this particular combination of traits that interested the researchers.

Traditionally, cultural taste was seen through the lens of social class. Sociologists argued that elites used their preference for “highbrow” culture, like classical music and fine art, to distinguish themselves from other social classes. In recent decades, however, this pattern has shifted. Observers have noted the rise of the “cultural omnivore,” an individual who appreciates both high-status cultural products and more popular, “lowbrow” forms like pop music or street art.

The study’s authors proposed that this modern trend might be explained not just by social class, but by specific personality dynamics. They hypothesized that people high in narcissism but low in self-security might use cultural consumption as a tool. Liking highbrow culture could serve their need to signal superior status, while an appreciation for lowbrow culture, often seen as more authentic, could help soothe their inner feelings of inauthenticity.

To investigate this idea, the researchers conducted two separate studies. In the first experiment, they surveyed 178 university students. Participants completed questionnaires designed to measure their levels of narcissism and self-esteem. They were then asked to rate how likely they would be to participate in a variety of cultural activities.

Some of these activities were classified as highbrow, including attending a classical symphony or visiting art galleries. Others were categorized as lowbrow, such as going to pop concerts or viewing graffiti and street art. The researchers analyzed the data to see if there was a connection between the participants’ personality scores and their cultural intentions.

The findings revealed a distinct pattern. For individuals who scored high on the narcissism scale, having lower self-esteem was associated with a stronger intention to participate in highbrow cultural activities. A similar relationship appeared for lowbrow culture. The participants with high narcissism and low self-esteem also expressed a greater interest in lowbrow activities.

This confirmed that the insecure narcissist profile was linked to being a cultural omnivore, showing an appetite for both ends of the cultural spectrum. The analysis also suggested that this behavior was connected to a general motivation for “distinction seeking,” or a desire to establish a unique and notable identity through their choices. This relationship held even when the researchers accounted for other factors, like a person’s openness to new experiences or their own perception of their social status.

The second study was designed to explore the specific motivations behind these dual preferences. The researchers wanted to confirm if status seeking was driving the interest in highbrow culture, while a need for integrity was behind the preference for lowbrow culture. This experiment involved 144 university students and used a slightly different approach.

Instead of measuring general self-esteem, the researchers measured a more specific form of insecurity known as self-alienation, which is the feeling of being out of touch with one’s true self. They also focused on a particular aspect of narcissism related to superiority and arrogance. Participants were then randomly assigned to read a biography of a fictional artist.

One version of the biography presented the artist as highbrow, noting that her paintings were exhibited in major museums around the world. The other version framed her as lowbrow, explaining that her work was given to family and friends before being discovered by an art dealer in her hometown. After reading one of the biographies, participants rated their interest in seeing the artist’s work. They also answered questions about their current motivations, including their desire to signal status and their need to project self-integrity.

The results of this experiment provided clearer support for the researchers’ hypothesis. Among participants who read about the highbrow artist, those with the insecure narcissist profile showed greater interest in her work. This increased interest was statistically linked to a heightened desire for status at that moment. Consuming high-status art appeared to satisfy their need to be seen as having high status.

For the participants who read about the lowbrow artist, a different motivation was at play. In this case, the insecure narcissist group’s interest in the art was connected to their desire to signal self-integrity. The perceived authenticity of the lowbrow artist seemed to offer a way for these individuals to bolster their own shaky sense of self. The two studies together paint a nuanced picture of how personality can shape cultural tastes.

This research provides a new psychological perspective on a phenomenon that has largely been studied through a sociological framework. It suggests that for some people, the choice of what art to consume is not merely a matter of taste but a complex strategy for managing their identity and internal insecurities.

The authors note that their findings are based on statistical associations, and future research could explore these mechanisms further. For instance, an experiment could temporarily change a person’s feelings of security to see if it directly affects their cultural preferences. Researchers could also examine whether this pattern of behavior extends to other domains, such as luxury consumption, social media use, or even charitable giving.

The study, “How Insecure Narcissists Become Cultural Omnivores: Consuming Highbrow Culture for Status Seeking and Lowbrow Culture for Integrity Signaling,” was authored by Hanna Shin and Nara Youn.

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New study shows that a robot’s feedback can shape human relationships

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Eric W. Dolan

A new study has found that a robot’s feedback during a collaborative task can influence the feeling of closeness between the human participants. The research, published in Computers in Human Behavior, indicates that this effect changes depending on the robot’s appearance and how it communicates.

As robots become more integrated into workplaces and homes, they are often designed to assist with decision-making. While much research has focused on how robots affect the quality of a group’s decisions, less is known about how a robot’s presence might alter the personal relationships between the humans on the team. The researchers sought to understand this dynamic by exploring how a robot’s agreement or disagreement impacts the sense of interpersonal connection people feel.

“Given the rise of large language models in recent years, we believe robots of different forms will soon be equipped with non-scripted verbal language to help people make decisions in various contexts. We conducted our research to call for careful consideration and control over the precise behaviors robots should use to provide feedback in the future,” said study author Ting-Han Lin, a computer science PhD student at the University of Chicago.

The investigation centered on two established psychological ideas. One, known as Balance Theory, suggests that people feel more positive toward one another when they are treated similarly by a third party, even if that treatment is negative. The other concept, the Influence of Negative Affect, proposes that a negative tone or criticism can damage the general atmosphere of an interaction and harm relationships.

To test these ideas, the researchers conducted two separate experiments, each involving pairs of participants who did not know each other. In both experiments, the pairs worked together to answer a series of eight personal questions, such as “What is the most important factor contributing to a life well-lived?” For each question, participants first gave their own individual answers before discussing and agreeing on a joint response.

A robot was present to mediate the task. After each person gave their initial answer, the robot would provide feedback. This feedback varied in two ways. First was its positivity, meaning the robot would either agree or disagree with the person’s statement. Second was its treatment of the pair, meaning the robot would either treat both people equally (agreeing with both or disagreeing with both) or unequally (agreeing with one and disagreeing with the other).

The first experiment involved 172 participants interacting with a highly human-like robot named NAO. This robot could speak, use gestures like nodding or shaking its head, and employed artificial intelligence to summarize a person’s response before giving its feedback. Its verbal disagreements were designed to grow in intensity, beginning with mild phrases and ending with statements like, “I am fundamentally opposed with your viewpoint.”

The results from this experiment showed that the positivity of the robot’s feedback had a strong effect on the participants’ relationship. When the NAO robot gave positive feedback, the two human participants reported feeling closer to each other. When the robot consistently gave negative feedback, the participants felt more distant from one another.

“A robot’s feedback to two people in a decision-making task can shape their closeness,” Lin told PsyPost.

This outcome supports the theory regarding the influence of negative affect. The robot’s consistent negativity seemed to create a less pleasant social environment, which in turn reduced the feeling of connection between the two people. The robot’s treatment of the pair, whether equal or unequal, did not appear to be the primary factor shaping their closeness in this context. Participants also rated the human-like robot as warmer and more competent when it was positive, though they found it more discomforting when it treated them unequally.

The second experiment involved 150 participants and a robot with a very low degree of human-like features. This robot resembled a simple, articulated lamp and could not speak. It communicated its feedback exclusively through minimal gestures, such as nodding for agreement or shaking its head from side to side for disagreement.

With this less-human robot, the findings were quite different. The main factor influencing interpersonal closeness was the robot’s treatment of the pair. When the robot treated both participants equally, they reported feeling closer to each other, regardless of whether the feedback was positive or negative. Unequal treatment, where the robot agreed with one person and disagreed with the other, led to a greater sense of distance between them.

This result aligns well with Balance Theory. The shared experience of being treated the same by the robot, either through mutual agreement or mutual disagreement, seemed to create a bond. The researchers also noted a surprising finding. When the lamp-like robot disagreed with both participants, they felt even closer than when it agreed with both, suggesting that the robot became a “common enemy” that united them.

“Heider’s Balance Theory dominates when a low anthropomorphism robot is present,” Lin said.

The researchers propose that the different outcomes are likely due to the intensity of the feedback delivered by each robot. The human-like NAO robot’s use of personalized speech and strong verbal disagreement was potent enough to create a negative atmosphere that overshadowed other social dynamics. Its criticism was taken more seriously, and its negativity was powerful enough to harm the human-human connection.

“The influence of negative affect prevails when a high anthropomorphism robot exists,” Lin said.

In contrast, the simple, non-verbal gestures of the lamp-like robot were not as intense. Because its disagreement was less personal and less powerful, it did not poison the overall interaction. This allowed the more subtle effects of balanced versus imbalanced treatment to become the main influence on the participants’ relationship. Interviews with participants supported this idea, as people interacting with the machine-like robot often noted that they did not take its opinions as seriously.

Across both experiments, the robot’s feedback did not significantly alter how the final joint decisions were made. Participants tended to incorporate each other’s ideas fairly evenly, regardless of the robot’s expressed opinion. This suggests the robot’s influence was more on the social and emotional level than on the practical outcome of the decision-making task.

The study has some limitations, including the fact that the two experiments were conducted in different countries with different participant populations. The first experiment used a diverse group of museum visitors in the United States, while the second involved university students in Israel. Future research could explore these dynamics in more varied contexts.

The study, “The impact of a robot’s agreement (or disagreement) on human-human interpersonal closeness in a two-person decision-making task,” was authored by Ting-Han Lin, Yuval Rubin Kopelman, Madeline Busse, Sarah Sebo, and Hadas Erel.

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Photos show thousands of ultra-Orthodox men protesting military draft shut down Jerusalem

✇The Independent
By:Leo Correa

Tens of thousands of ultra-Orthodox men filled downtown Jerusalem in protest against plans to draft them into Israel’s military, creating a sea of black-clad demonstrators who sang, clapped, and carried signs vowing jail over enlistment. The protest shut down the city, halted public transport and closed major roads.

© Copyright 2025 The Associated Press. All rights reserved

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New research explores the biopsychology of common sexual behaviors

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Eric W. Dolan

Recent research provides new insight into the functions of common sexual behaviors, revealing how they contribute not just to physical pleasure but also to emotional bonding. A trio of studies, two published in the WebLog Journal of Reproductive Medicine and one in the International Journal of Clinical Research and Reports, examines the physiological and psychological dimensions of why men hold their partners’ legs and stimulate their breasts, what men gain from these acts, and how women experience them.

Researchers pursued these lines of inquiry because many frequently practiced sexual behaviors remain scientifically underexplored. While practices like a man holding a woman’s legs or performing oral breast stimulation are common, the specific reasons for their prevalence and their effects on both partners were not fully understood from an integrated perspective. The scientific motivation was to create a more comprehensive picture that combines biology, psychology, and social factors to explain what happens during these intimate moments.

“Human sexual behavior is often discussed socially, but many aspects of it lack meaningful scientific exploration,” said study author Rehan Haider of the University of Karachi. “We noticed a gap connecting physiological responses, evolutionary psychology, and relationship intimacy to why certain tactile behaviors are preferred during intercourse. Our goal was to examine these mechanisms in a respectful, evidence-based manner rather than rely on anecdote or cultural assumptions.”

The first study took a broad, mixed-methods approach to understand why men often hold women’s legs and engage in breast stimulation during intercourse. The researchers combined a review of existing literature with observational studies and self-reported surveys from adult heterosexual couples aged 18 to 50. This allowed them to assemble a model that connected male behaviors with female responses and relational outcomes.

The research team reported that 68 percent of couples practiced leg holding during intercourse. This position was found to facilitate deeper vaginal penetration and improve the alignment of the bodies, which in turn enhanced stimulation of sensitive areas like the clitoris and G-spot. Women in the study correlated this act with higher levels of sexual satisfaction.

The research also affirmed the significance of breast stimulation, noting that manual stimulation occurred in 60 percent of encounters and oral stimulation in 54 percent. This contact activates sensory pathways in the nipple-areolar complex, promoting the release of the hormones oxytocin and prolactin, which are associated with increased sexual arousal and emotional bonding. From a psychological standpoint, these behaviors appeared to reinforce feelings of intimacy, trust, and connection between partners.

“We were surprised by the consistency of emotional feedback among participants, particularly how strongly feelings of closeness and security were linked to these behaviors,” Haider told PsyPost. “It suggests an underestimated psychological component beyond pure physical stimulation.”

“The core message is that sexual touch preferences are not random—many are supported by biological reward pathways, emotional bonding hormones, and evolutionary reproductive strategies. Leg-holding and breast stimulation, for example, can enhance feelings of safety, intimacy, and arousal for both partners. Healthy communication and consent around such behaviors strengthen relational satisfaction.”

A second, complementary study focused specifically on the male experience of performing oral stimulation on a partner’s nipples. The goal was to understand the pleasure and psychological satisfaction men themselves derive from this act. To do this, researchers conducted a cross-sectional survey, recruiting 500 heterosexual men between the ages of 18 and 55. Participants completed a structured and anonymous questionnaire designed to measure the frequency of the behavior, their self-rated level of arousal from it, and its association with feelings of intimacy and overall sexual satisfaction.

The analysis of this survey data revealed a strong positive association between the frequency of performing nipple stimulation and a man’s own sense of sexual fulfillment and relational closeness. The results indicated that men do not engage in this behavior solely for their partner’s benefit. They reported finding the act to be both highly erotic and emotionally gratifying. The researchers propose that the behavior serves a dual function for men, simultaneously enhancing their personal arousal while reinforcing the psychological bond with their partner, likely through mechanisms linked to the hormone oxytocin, which plays a role in social affiliation and trust.

The third study shifted the focus to the female perspective, examining women’s physical and psychological responses to breast and nipple stimulation during penetrative intercourse. This investigation used a clinical and observational design, collecting data from 120 sexually active women aged 21 to 50. The methodology involved structured interviews, clinical feedback from counseling sessions, and the use of validated questionnaires, including the well-established Female Sexual Function Index (`FSFI`), a self-report tool used to assess key dimensions of female sexual function.

This research confirmed that stimulation of the breasts and nipples consistently contributed to a more positive sexual experience for women. Women with higher reported nipple sensitivity showed significantly better scores across the FSFI domains of arousal, orgasm, and satisfaction. Physically, this type of stimulation was associated with enhanced vaginal lubrication and clitoral responsiveness during intercourse.

Psychologically, the researchers found a connection between a woman’s perception of her breasts and her emotional experience. Women who described their breasts as “zones of intimacy” or “trust-enhancing touchpoints” reported a greater sense of emotional connection and reduced anxiety during sex. However, the study also identified that 23 percent of participants experienced discomfort during breast stimulation.

“This research does not imply that these behaviors are necessary or universally preferred,” Haider noted. “It’s also not about objectification. Rather, it focuses on how touch patterns can reinforce mutual trust, pleasure, and bonding when consensual and respectful. Not everyone will experience the same responses, and preferences vary widely. The study highlights trends—not prescriptions—and should be interpreted as an invitation for communication rather than a standard everyone must follow.”

While these studies offer a more detailed understanding of sexual behavior, the researchers acknowledge certain limitations. All three studies relied heavily on self-reported data, which can be influenced by memory recall and social desirability biases. The research was also primarily cross-sectional, capturing a snapshot in time, which can identify associations but cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships. For instance, it is unclear if frequent breast stimulation leads to higher intimacy or if more intimate couples simply engage in the behavior more often.

For future research, scientists suggest incorporating longitudinal designs that follow couples over an extended period to better understand the development of these behavioral patterns and their long-term effects on relationship satisfaction. There is also a need for more cross-cultural comparisons, as sexual scripts and preferences can vary significantly across different societies.

“Future work will explore female perspectives more deeply, neuroendocrine changes during different types of touch, and how cultural factors shape sexual comfort and preference,” Haider said. We’d like to compare findings across age groups and relationship durations as well. Sexual well-being is an important aspect of overall health, but it is rarely discussed scientifically. By approaching these topics with sensitivity and rigor, we hope to normalize evidence-based conversation and encourage couples to communicate openly.”

The studies, “Physiological Basis of Male Preference for Holding Women’s Legs and Breast Stimulation during Intercourse,” “Nipple Sucking and Male Sexual Response: Perceived Pleasure and Psychological Satisfaction,” and “Women’s Physical and Psychological Responses during Penetrative Sexual Intercourse: The Role of Breast and Nipple Sensitivity” were authored by Rehan Haider, Geetha Kumari Das, and Zameer Ahmed.

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Older adults sleep better after a hot tub bath, particularly during winter

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Vladimir Hedrih

A study of older adults in Japan found that taking a hot-tub bath before bed was associated with better sleep quality. Participants not only felt their sleep was better, but objective actigraphy data also confirmed they slept more efficiently on average compared to their peers who did not bathe before bed. This effect was particularly strong during winter. The paper was published in Sleep Health: Journal of the National Sleep Foundation.

Sleep quality refers to how well a person sleeps, including how long it takes to fall asleep, how often they wake during the night, and how rested they feel upon waking. It is not just the number of hours slept but the depth and continuity of sleep that determine its quality. High-quality sleep involves cycling smoothly through the stages of light, deep, and REM sleep without frequent interruptions.

Poor sleep quality can result from stress, irregular schedules, caffeine, alcohol, or sleep disorders like insomnia or sleep apnea. Good sleep quality supports brain function, learning, and emotional stability. It also plays a key role in physical health, aiding immune function, tissue repair, and hormone balance. Chronic poor sleep increases the risk of heart disease, obesity, diabetes, and depression. People who sleep poorly often experience daytime fatigue, poor concentration, and irritability.

Study author Yoshiaki Tai and his colleagues wanted to explore the effects of hot-tub bathing on sleep quality under real-life conditions, accounting for various factors such as bathing behaviors, environmental influences, and individual characteristics.

Hot-tub bathing is a common evening or nighttime practice in Japan. It involves being immersed in a tub filled with water heated to 40–41°C for 10–30 minutes. The bathtub is usually designed to have a depth that allows the water level to reach the mid-thorax or neck.

The researchers note that previous studies reported that hot-tub bathing before sleep was associated with lower nighttime blood pressure and a lower prevalence of nocturia (waking up from sleep to urinate).

The study included 2,252 older adults from Nara, Japan. Their average age was 69 years, and 64% were women.

Study participants wore an actigraph on the wrist of their non-dominant hand for seven consecutive 24-hour periods. An actigraph is a device that measures movement to estimate an individual’s sleep patterns, activity levels, and circadian rhythms. They also wore a wireless device that logged their skin temperature attached to the actigraph, and another temperature logger on their abdomen (however, the abdominal one was worn for 24 hours only).

Participants completed an assessment of sleep quality (the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index) and kept a diary of their bathing behavior. They recorded whether they took a hot-tub bath, a shower, or did not bathe before bed, as well as the start and end times of bathing and the duration of immersion. For a majority of the participants, this diary was for one day only, but 945 of them recorded it for the full 7-day period.

The study authors used these data to estimate the temperature of the water (using abdominal skin temperature as a surrogate) and the bath-to-bed interval. Baths taken more than 5 hours and 45 minutes before bedtime were classified as not having been taken before bedtime.

The results showed that participants who took a hot-tub bath before going to bed slept better than their peers who did not. Their odds of reporting poor sleep quality were significantly lower than the odds for participants who did not bathe. The odds of poor sleep for participants who took a shower were not significantly different from those who did not bathe.

Higher water temperature during bathing and longer immersion time were associated with more efficient sleep. However, there was a negative interaction between these two factors. If the water temperature went above 41.7°C or immersion lasted longer than 18.3 minutes, further increases were no longer beneficial and were associated with reduced sleep efficiency.

Furthermore, the association between hot-tub bathing and more efficient sleep was strongest and most consistent for participants studied during the winter months. In general, subjective sleep assessments agreed with actigraphy measures, indicating better sleep for participants taking hot-tub baths.

“Hot-tub bathing was associated with better self-reported sleep quality, higher SE [sleep efficiency], and shorter WASO [wake after sleep onset] in real-life settings among community-dwelling older adults. In hot-tub bathing sessions with a duration of immersion < 18.3 minutes and proximal skin temperature during bathing (used as a surrogate for water temperature in the bathtub) < 41.7°C, a longer duration of immersion and higher maximum proximal skin temperature during bathing were positively associated with higher SE [sleep efficiency]. Our results suggest that improvements in SE, WASO [wake after sleep onset], and SOL [sleep onset latency, how long it takes to fall asleep] can be maximized when hot-tub bathing is scheduled 61–120 minutes before bedtime during winter,” the study authors concluded.

The study sheds light on the links between bathing behaviors and sleep quality. However, it should be noted that this was an observational study, and researchers did not direct participants’ bathing behaviors. Because of this, definitive causal inferences cannot be drawn from the results.

The paper, “Association between before-bedtime hot-tub bathing and sleep quality in real-life settings among community-dwelling older adults,” was authored by Yoshiaki Tai, Kenji Obayashi, Yuki Yamagami, and Keigo Saeki.

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Testosterone shifts how men learn to avoid personal harm

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Karina Petrova

A single dose of testosterone can alter the fundamental learning processes men use to avoid harm, making them more sensitive to negative outcomes when their own well-being is on the line. The study, published in the journal Biological Psychology, reveals a nuanced role for the hormone, suggesting it fine-tunes self-preservation mechanisms, which in turn affects prosocial behavior.

Testosterone is associated with the pursuit of social status, but most studies have focused on behaviors related to acquiring rewards. Less understood is the hormone’s role in avoiding harm, a behavior that is equally significant for one’s standing in a group. Successfully avoiding harm to oneself signals strength and competence, while avoiding harm to others demonstrates moral character and builds a trustworthy reputation. Scientists hypothesized that testosterone might support both self-protective and prosocial harm avoidance, but that it might achieve this through distinct computational mechanisms in the brain.

To investigate this, the study team recruited 120 healthy male university students. In a double-blind procedure, participants were randomly assigned to receive either a single dose of testosterone gel or an identical-looking placebo gel applied to their shoulders. Three hours later, after the hormone had reached peak levels in the body, the participants began a learning task designed to measure how they learn to prevent harm to themselves and to a stranger.

In the task, participants repeatedly chose between two abstract symbols on a screen. One symbol had a high probability (75%) of avoiding a mild electric shock, while the other had a low probability (25%). In some blocks of trials, the potential shock was for the participant himself (the “Self” condition). In other blocks, the shock was for another participant, a confederate who they believed was in an adjacent room (the “Other” condition). Over 64 trials for each condition, participants had to learn through trial and error which symbol was the safer choice.

The researchers analyzed the results in two ways. First, they looked at the participants’ overall performance. They found that men in both the testosterone and placebo groups learned the task successfully. Participants generally made more correct choices for themselves than for others, but their learning curve was steeper when making decisions for another person, meaning they caught up more quickly. The testosterone group showed a small but distinct difference: the performance gap between making choices for themselves and for others persisted for more trials than it did in the placebo group.

To understand the learning processes behind these choices, the researchers used computational modeling. This approach, based on reinforcement learning theory, allows scientists to estimate the hidden mental variables that guide decisions. A key concept is the “prediction error,” which is the difference between an expected outcome and the actual outcome. Learning occurs when we use this error to update our expectations. The model estimated “learning rates,” which quantify how much weight a person gives to these prediction errors.

The researchers were particularly interested in whether learning rates differed for positive prediction errors (good news, like avoiding a shock) and negative prediction errors (bad news, like receiving a shock).

The modeling revealed that the most accurate description of participants’ behavior involved separate learning rates for good and bad news, and that these rates changed depending on who was at risk. In the placebo group, men showed a higher learning rate from negative outcomes when another person could be shocked, compared to when they themselves were at risk. This suggests a heightened sensitivity to causing harm to others.

The testosterone group, however, displayed a different pattern of learning. Specifically, when making decisions for themselves, men who received testosterone learned significantly more from negative outcomes and less from positive outcomes compared to the placebo group. Essentially, the hormone appeared to increase their sensitivity to the possibility of personal harm. When making choices for the other person, their learning rates were not significantly different from the placebo group.

The researchers also calculated a “prosocial learning index” by comparing the learning rate for others to the learning rate for self. This analysis showed that the testosterone group had a lower prosocial learning rate from negative outcomes compared to the placebo group. This change was not because they cared less about the other person; it was a consequence of their self-related learning from harm becoming so much stronger.

An additional finding involved trait anxiety. In the placebo group, men with higher anxiety learned more quickly from negative outcomes when another’s well-being was at stake, which aligns with the idea that anxiety increases sensitivity to threats. In the testosterone group, this relationship was reversed. Higher anxiety was associated with reduced learning from negative outcomes for others relative to oneself. This finding provides computational support for the idea that testosterone can have anxiety-reducing effects, altering how personality traits influence social decision-making.

The study does have some limitations that open paths for future inquiry. The research included only male participants, so the findings cannot be generalized to others. Replicating the results with a larger, preregistered study would increase confidence in the conclusions. Future experiments could also include a condition where participants believe their choices are being observed by others, which would provide a more direct test of the social status hypothesis in a harm-avoidance context.

The study, “Testosterone modulates harm-avoidance learning for the self and others through distinct computational mechanisms,” was authored by Shaoxiong Liu, Haohui Wang, Cheng-Ta Yang, and Honghong Tang.

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Scientists are discovering more and more about the spooky psychology behind our love of horror

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Eric W. Dolan

The human fascination with fear is a long-standing puzzle. From ghost stories told around a campfire to the latest blockbuster horror film, many people actively seek out experiences designed to frighten them. This seemingly contradictory impulse, where negative feelings like terror and anxiety produce a sense of enjoyment and thrill, has intrigued psychologists for decades. Researchers are now using a variety of tools, from brain scans to personality surveys, to understand this complex relationship.

Their work is revealing how our brains process fear, what personality traits draw us to the dark side of entertainment, and even how these experiences might offer surprising psychological benefits. Here is a look at twelve recent studies that explore the multifaceted psychology of horror, fear, and the paranormal.

(You can click on the subtitles to learn more about the studies.)

Your Brain on Horror: A New Theory Suggests We’re Training for Uncertainty

A new theory proposes that horror films appeal to us because they provide a safe, controlled setting for our brains to practice managing uncertainty. This idea is based on a framework known as predictive processing, which suggests the brain operates like a prediction engine. It constantly makes forecasts about what will happen next, and when reality doesn’t match its predictions, it generates a “prediction error” that it works to resolve.

This process doesn’t mean we only seek out calm, predictable situations. Instead, our brains are wired to find ideal opportunities for learning, which often exist at the edge of our understanding. We are drawn toward a “Goldlilocks zone” of manageable uncertainty that is neither too simple nor too chaotic. The rewarding feeling comes not just from being correct, but from the rate at which we reduce our uncertainty.

Horror films appear to be engineered to place us directly in this zone. They manipulate our predictive minds with a mix of the familiar and the unexpected. Suspenseful music and classic horror tropes build our anticipation, while jump scares suddenly violate our predictions. By engaging with this controlled chaos, we get to experience and resolve prediction errors in a low-stakes environment, which the brain can find inherently gratifying.

A Good Scare: Enjoying Horror May Be an Evolved Trait for Threat Simulation

Research from an evolutionary perspective suggests that our enjoyment of horror serves a practical purpose: it prepares us for real-world dangers. This “threat-simulation hypothesis” posits that engaging with scary media is an adaptive trait, allowing us to explore threatening scenarios and rehearse our responses from a position of safety. Through horror, we can learn about predators, hostile social encounters, and other dangers without facing any actual risk.

A survey of over 1,100 adults found that a majority of people consume horror media and more than half enjoy it. The study revealed that people who enjoy horror expect to experience a range of positive emotions like joy and surprise alongside fear. This supports the idea that the negative emotion of fear is balanced by positive feelings, a phenomenon some call “benign masochism.”

The findings also showed that sensation-seeking was a strong predictor of horror enjoyment, as was a personality trait related to intellect and imagination. It seems those who seek imaginative stimulation are particularly drawn to horror. By providing a vast space for emotional and cognitive play, frightening entertainment allows us to build and display mastery over situations that would be terrifying in real life.

The Thrill of the Kill: Fear and Realism Drive Horror Enjoyment

To better understand what makes a horror movie entertaining, researchers surveyed nearly 600 people about their reactions to short scenes from various horror subgenres. The study found that three key factors predicted both excitement and enjoyment: the intensity of fear the viewer felt, their curiosity about morbid topics, and how realistic they perceived the scenes to be.

The experience of fear itself was powerfully linked to both excitement and enjoyment, showing that the thrill of being scared is a central part of the appeal. Morbid curiosity also played a significant role, indicating that people with a natural interest in dark subjects are more likely to find horror entertaining. The perceived realism of a scene heightened the experience as well.

However, not all negative emotions contributed to the fun. Scenes that provoked high levels of disgust tended to decrease enjoyment, even if they were still exciting. This finding suggests that while fear can be a source of pleasure for horror fans, disgust often introduces an element that makes the experience less enjoyable overall.

Scary Fun: Nearly All Children Enjoy Playful Fear

Fear is not just for adults. A large-scale survey of 1,600 Danish parents has revealed that “recreational fear,” or the experience of activities that are both scary and fun, is a nearly universal part of childhood. An overwhelming 93% of children between the ages of 1 and 17 were reported to enjoy at least one type of scary yet fun activity, with 70% engaging in one weekly.

The study identified clear developmental trends in how children experience recreational fear. Younger children often find it in physical and imaginative play, such as being playfully chased or engaging in rough-and-tumble games. As they grow into adolescence, their interest shifts toward media-based experiences like scary movies, video games, and frightening online content. One constant across all ages was the enjoyment of activities involving high speeds, heights, or depths, like swings and amusement park rides.

These experiences are predominantly social. Young children typically engage with parents or siblings, while adolescents turn to friends. This social context may provide a sense of security that allows children to explore fear safely. The researchers propose that this type of play is beneficial, helping children learn to regulate their emotions, test their limits, and build psychological resilience.

Decoding Your Watchlist: Film Preferences May Reflect Personality

A study involving 300 college students suggests that your favorite movie genre might offer clues about your personality. Using the well-established Big Five personality model, researchers found consistent links between film preferences and traits like extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.

Fans of horror films tended to score higher in extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, suggesting they may be outgoing, cooperative, and organized. They also scored lower in neuroticism and openness, which could indicate they are less emotionally reactive and less drawn to abstract ideas. In contrast, those who favored drama scored higher in conscientiousness and neuroticism, while adventure film fans were more extraverted and spontaneous.

While these findings point to a relationship between personality and media choice, the study has limitations. The sample was limited to a specific age group and cultural background, so the results may not apply to everyone. The research also cannot determine whether personality shapes film choice or if the films we watch might influence our personality over time.

Dark Beats: Morbid Curiosity Linked to Enjoyment of Violent Music

Morbid curiosity, a trait defined by an interest in dangerous phenomena, may help explain why some people are drawn to music with violent themes, like death metal or certain subgenres of rap. A recent study found that people with higher levels of morbid curiosity were more likely to listen to and enjoy music with violent lyrics.

In an initial survey, researchers found that fans of music with violent themes scored higher on a scale of morbid curiosity than fans of other genres. A second experiment involved having participants listen to musical excerpts. The results showed that morbid curiosity predicted enjoyment of extreme metal with violent lyrics, but not rap music with violent lyrics, suggesting different factors may be at play for different genres.

The study authors propose that morbid curiosity is not a deviant trait, but an adaptive one that helps people learn about threatening aspects of life in a safe, simulated context. Music with violent themes can act as one of these simulations, allowing listeners to explore dangerous ideas and the emotions they evoke without any real-world consequences.

Pandemic Practice: Horror Fans Showed More Resilience During COVID-19

People who enjoy horror movies may have been better equipped to handle the psychological stress of the COVID-19 pandemic. A study conducted in April 2020 surveyed 322 U.S. adults about their genre preferences, morbid curiosity, and psychological state during the early days of the pandemic.

The researchers found that fans of horror movies reported less psychological distress than non-fans. They were less likely to agree with statements about feeling more depressed or having trouble sleeping since the pandemic began. Fans of “prepper” genres, such as zombie and apocalyptic films, also reported less distress and said they felt more prepared for the pandemic.

The study’s authors speculate that horror fans may have developed better emotion-regulation skills by repeatedly exposing themselves to frightening fiction in a controlled way. This “practice” with fear in a safe setting could have translated into greater resilience when faced with a real-world crisis.

A Frightening Prescription? Scary Fun May Briefly Shift Brain Activity in Depression

Engaging with frightening entertainment might temporarily alter brain network patterns associated with depression. A study found that in individuals with mild-to-moderate depression, a controlled scary experience was linked to a brief reduction in the over-connectivity between two key brain networks: the default mode network (active during self-focused thought) and the salience network (which detects important events).

This over-connectivity is thought to contribute to rumination, a cycle of negative thoughts common in depression. By demanding a person’s full attention, the scary experience appeared to pull focus away from this internal loop and onto the external threat. The greater this reduction in connectivity, the more enjoyment participants reported.

The study also found that individuals with moderate depression needed a more intense scare to reach their peak enjoyment compared to those with minimal symptoms. While the observed brain changes were temporary, the findings raise questions about the interplay between fear, pleasure, and emotion regulation.

Believe What You Watch: Some Horror Might Bolster Paranormal Beliefs

A recent study has found a connection between the type of horror media people watch and their beliefs in the paranormal. After surveying over 600 Belgian adults, researchers discovered that consumption of horror content claiming to be based on “true events” or presented as reality was associated with stronger paranormal beliefs.

Specifically, people who frequently watched paranormal reality TV shows and horror films marketed as being based on a true story were more likely to endorse beliefs in things like ghosts, spiritualism, and psychic powers. Other fictional horror genres, such as monster movies or psychological thrillers, did not show a similar connection.

This finding aligns with media effect theories suggesting that when content is perceived as more realistic or credible, it can have a stronger impact on a viewer’s attitudes. However, the study’s design means it is also possible that people who already believe in the paranormal are simply more drawn to this type of content.

Brainwaves of Believers: Paranormal Beliefs Linked to Distinct Neural Patterns

Individuals who strongly believe in paranormal phenomena may exhibit different brain activity and cognitive patterns compared to skeptics. A study using electroencephalography (EEG) to record the brain’s electrical activity found that paranormal believers had reduced power in certain brainwave frequencies, specifically in the alpha, beta, and gamma bands, particularly in the frontal, parietal, and occipital regions of the brain.

Participants also completed a cognitive task designed to measure inhibitory control, which is the ability to suppress impulsive actions. Paranormal believers made more errors on this task than skeptics, suggesting reduced inhibitory control. They also reported experiencing more everyday cognitive failures, such as memory slips and attention lapses.

The researchers found that activity in one specific frequency band, beta2 in the frontal lobe, appeared to mediate the relationship between paranormal beliefs and inhibitory control. This suggests that differences in brain function, particularly in regions involved in high-level cognitive processes, may be connected to a person’s conviction in the paranormal.

A Sixth Sense? Unusual Experiences Tied to a Trait Called Subconscious Connectedness

Unusual events like premonitions, vivid dreams, and out-of-body sensations are surprisingly common, and people who report them often share certain psychological traits. A series of three studies involving over 2,200 adults found a strong link between anomalous experiences and a trait called “subconscious connectedness,” which describes the degree to which a person’s conscious and subconscious minds influence each other.

People who scored high in subconscious connectedness reported having anomalous experiences far more frequently than those with low scores. In one national survey, 86% of participants said they had at least one type of anomalous experience more than once. The most commonly reported was déjà vu, followed by correctly sensing they were being stared at and having premonitions that came true.

These experiences were also associated with other traits, including absorption, dissociation, vivid imagination, and a tendency to trust intuition. While people who reported more anomalous experiences also tended to report more stress and anxiety, these associations were modest, suggesting such experiences are a normal part of human psychology for many.

Someone There? How Our Brains Create a ‘Feeling of Presence’ in the Dark

The eerie sensation that someone is nearby when you are alone may be a product of your brain trying to make sense of uncertainty. A study found that this “feeling of presence” is more likely to occur when people are in darkness with their senses dulled. Under these conditions, the brain may rely more on internal cues and expectations, sometimes generating the impression of an unseen agent.

In an experiment, university students sat alone in a darkened room for 30 minutes while wearing a sleeping mask and earplugs. The results showed that participants who reported higher levels of internal uncertainty were more likely to feel that another person was with them. This suggests that when sensory information is limited, the brain may interpret ambiguous bodily sensations or anxious feelings as evidence of an outside presence.

This cognitive process might be an evolutionary holdover. From a survival standpoint, it is safer to mistakenly assume a predator is hiding in the dark than to ignore a real one. This bias toward detecting agents could help explain why ghostly encounters and beliefs in invisible beings are so common across human cultures, especially in situations of isolation and vulnerability.

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Omega-3 diet offsets some prenatal cannabis effects in male but not female offspring

✇PsyPost – Psychology News
By:Eric W. Dolan

A new study reports that a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy can prevent some of the lasting neuropsychiatric effects of prenatal THC exposure in rats. The findings, published in Molecular Psychiatry, suggest these protective effects are much more pronounced in male offspring, highlighting a significant sex-based difference in the outcomes.

The rationale behind the investigation stems from the increasing use of cannabis during pregnancy, coupled with a public perception that it is relatively safe. Scientific evidence, however, suggests that prenatal exposure to THC, the main psychoactive component in cannabis, can pose risks to a developing fetus. THC can cross the placenta and directly affect the fetal brain, interfering with the endocannabinoid system, a complex network of signals that helps guide proper brain formation.

This natural signaling system is built from fatty acids, which are lipids. The authors behind the new study hypothesized that since THC disrupts this lipid-based system, a dietary intervention focused on beneficial lipids like omega-3 fatty acids might offer a protective effect. Omega-3s are known to be fundamental for building healthy brain cells and circuits, making them a logical candidate for counteracting some of THC’s disruptive influence.

“Cannabis use during pregnancy is rising and there are misperceptions about its safety for the developing fetal brain. There is also a big knowledge gap about how prenatal cannabis use can impact critical brain developmental systems like the omega-3 fatty acid pathway, which is critical for healthy brain development and mental health outcomes,” said study author Steven R. Laviolette, a professor and director of the Addiction Research Group at the University of Western Ontario.

To explore this, the research team used a rat model. Pregnant rats were divided into four groups. Two groups received a standard control diet, and two received a diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids. Within each dietary group, half of the dams were given daily injections of THC during gestation, while the other half received a harmless vehicle injection. This created four experimental conditions for the offspring: a control group, a group exposed only to omega-3s, a group exposed only to THC, and a group exposed to both THC and the omega-3 diet.

The researchers then followed the offspring into adulthood, conducting a comprehensive series of tests to assess their behavior, brain function, and brain chemistry. The first observation was related to birth weight. Offspring exposed to THC had significantly lower birth weights, but this effect was prevented in the pups whose mothers were on the omega-3 diet.

Behavioral testing in adulthood revealed clear, sex-specific outcomes. Males exposed to THC showed heightened anxiety-like behaviors in various tests. This anxiety was absent in the THC-exposed males that also received the omega-3 diet, suggesting the diet had a preventative effect. Females did not show the same anxiety-like behaviors from THC exposure.

The researchers also examined cognitive function through tests of social interaction, spatial working memory, and the ability to recognize objects in a specific order. In these tasks, prenatal THC exposure led to deficits in both male and female offspring. The omega-3 diet successfully prevented these cognitive problems in males. For females, the benefits were limited; the diet helped restore social motivation but did not improve their performance on the other memory tasks.

“We were surprised by 1) how severe the THC-induced abnormalities in omega-3-6 levels were in the brain and 2) how males and female offspring were differentially impacted by these effects, demonstrating that male vs. female offspring show differential sensitivity to maternal cannabis exposure,” Laviolette told PsyPost.

To understand the brain activity behind these behaviors, the team recorded electrical signals from neurons in three interconnected brain regions: the prefrontal cortex, the nucleus accumbens, and the hippocampus. They found that THC altered the normal firing patterns of brain cells differently in males and females. In the prefrontal cortex, THC caused hyperactivity in both sexes. The omega-3 diet restored normal activity in males but was less effective in females.

In the hippocampus, a region important for memory and mood, THC had opposite effects on activity in the two sexes. It made neurons in males underactive, while making neurons in females overactive. The omega-3 diet successfully corrected this imbalance in both sexes, returning neuronal activity to normal levels. The communication patterns between brain regions, which rely on coordinated rhythmic electrical waves, were also disrupted by THC. Again, the omega-3 diet helped normalize these communication rhythms more effectively in males than in females.

The deepest level of analysis looked at the molecular makeup of the brain, focusing on the lipids and proteins that are the building blocks of brain function. The results here were particularly revealing. THC exposure caused widespread disruptions in the balance of fatty acids and other lipid molecules in all three brain regions studied.

Even in the males whose behavior and brain activity appeared to be normalized by the omega-3 diet, these fundamental lipid imbalances persisted into adulthood. This suggests that while the dietary intervention could prevent outward symptoms, it did not completely fix the underlying chemical disruption caused by THC.

“While our dietary intervention prevented some of the negative impacts of fetal cannabis exposure, it did not fully restore normal fatty acid levels in the brain,” Laviolette said. “Thus, further research is needed to determine the precise balance of omega-3 (e.g. DHA vs. EPA) in order to block these negative outcomes.”

“Our findings are not to suggest that adding omega-3 supplements during pregnancy can prevent the negative effects of maternal cannabis exposure. Cannabis use during pregnancy is always dangerous and can have unintended negative effects on the developing child’s brain.”

Similarly, THC altered the levels of important proteins involved in brain cell communication and structure. The omega-3 diet helped correct many of these protein changes in males, but the effects were far less consistent in females. The findings collectively point to a scenario where the omega-3 diet provides a substantial buffering effect against THC-induced damage in the male brain, but the female brain seems to respond very differently to both the initial THC exposure and the dietary intervention.

“The major finding is that we found that exposure to THC during fetal brain development can strongly disrupt the normal balance between the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid pathways in the developing brain,” Laviolette explained. “These pathways need to be balanced in order to control processes like inflammation and oxidative stress, which are linked to increased risk for many cognitive and psychiatric problems in children.”

“We found that if we intervened with a high omega-3 dietary intervention during pregnancy, we were able to prevent many of the negative outcomes from maternal cannabis use. Importantly, this is not to suggest that taking omega-3 along with cannabis is a safer option, rather, it demonstrates that cannabis can strongly interfere with the developing brains normal balance of the omega-3-6 signaling pathways and that it would be necessary to restore healthy omega-3 fatty acid levels to block some of these dangerous side-effects of maternal cannabis use.”

“We also found that maternal cannabis use impacts three major brain areas, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and striatum, all of which had disruptions in normal fatty acid signaling levels and male and female offspring showed cognitive deficits in later life that were associated with pathology in these brain areas,” Laviolette said.

The study has some limitations. The research was conducted in rats, and while these models are informative for understanding basic neurobiology, the findings do not automatically translate to humans. The specific mechanisms, such as the diet’s effect on inflammation in the placenta, were not directly measured and require more investigation.

Looking ahead, researchers plan to further explore the biological reasons for the profound differences between male and female responses. They also hope to investigate whether providing omega-3 supplementation later in life, such as during childhood or adolescence, could help reverse or prevent problems that emerge long after birth.

The study, “Perinatal omega-3 sex-selectively mitigates neuropsychiatric impacts of prenatal THC in the cortico-striatal-hippocampal circuit,” was authored by Mohammed H. Sarikahya, Samantha L. Cousineau, Marta De Felice, Hanna J. Szkudlarek, Kendrick Lee, Aleksandra Doktor, Amanda Alcaide, Marieka V. DeVuono, Anubha Dembla, Karen Wong, Mathanke Balarajah, Sebastian Vanin, Miray Youssef, Kuralay Zhaksylyk, Madeline Machado, Haseeb Mahmood, Susanne Schmid, Ken K.-C. Yeung, Daniel B. Hardy, Walter Rushlow & Steven R. Laviolette.

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Charlie Kaufman: ‘They told me Being John Malkovich would never get made’

✇The Independent
By:Kevin E G Perry

The Oscar-winning ‘Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind’ screenwriter has collaborated with poet Eva HD on a short film following ghosts through the streets of Athens. The pair talk to Kevin E G Perry about mortality, the decline of Hollywood and grieving ‘Synecdoche, New York’ star Philip Seymour Hoffman

© How to Shoot a Ghost

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